sultan, originally, according to the Qurʾān, moral or spiritual authority; the term later came to denote political or governmental power and from the 11th century was used as a title by Muslim sovereigns. Maḥmūd of Ghazna (reigned ad 998–1030) was the first Muslim ruler to be called sultan by his contemporaries, and under the Seljuqs of Anatolia and Iran it became a regular title. Thereafter it was frequently conferred on sovereigns by the caliph (titular head of the Muslim community) and came to be used throughout the Islāmic world.
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How did the role of the caliph differ from that of the sultan?
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What was the Seljuq Empire and how did it influence Islamic history?
How did the Ottoman sultans rule their empire?
What happened to the sultanates during European colonization?
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