Quick Facts
Beginning in December 2010, unprecedented mass demonstrations against poverty, corruption, and political repression broke out in several Arab countries, challenging the authority of some of the most entrenched regimes in the Middle East and North Africa. Such was the case in Egypt, where in 2011 a popular uprising forced one of the region’s longest-serving and most influential leaders, Pres. Ḥosnī Mubārak, from power.
Jasmine RevolutionDemonstrators in the capital city of Tunis sitting on a wall where “Free at last” was written after the popular unrest of the Jasmine Revolution forced Tunisian Pres. Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali to step down, January 2011.The first demonstrations occurred in Tunisia in December 2010, triggered by the self-immolation of a young man frustrated by Tunisia’s high unemployment rate and rampant police corruption. Rallies calling for Pres. Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali to step down spread throughout the country, with police often resorting to violence to control the crowds. As clashes between police and protesters escalated, Ben Ali announced a series of economic and political reforms in an unsuccessful attempt to end the unrest. Demonstrations continued, forcing Ben Ali to flee the country. The apparent success of the popular uprising in Tunisia, by then dubbed the Jasmine Revolution, inspired similar movements in other countries, including Egypt, Yemen, and Libya. (See also Libya Revolt of 2011.)
In Egypt, demonstrations organized by youth groups, largely independent of Egypt’s established opposition parties, took hold in the capital and in cities around the country. Protesters called for Mubārak to step down immediately, clearing the way for free elections and democracy. As the demonstrations gathered strength, the Mubārak regime resorted to increasingly violent tactics against protesters, resulting in hundreds of injuries and deaths. Mubārak’s attempts to placate the protesters with concessions, including a pledge to step down at the end of his term in 2011 and naming Omar Suleiman as vice president—the first person to serve as such in Mubārak’s nearly three-decade presidency—did little to quell the unrest. After almost three weeks of mass protests in Egypt, Mubārak stepped down as president, leaving the Egyptian military in control of the country.
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Egypt: Unrest in 2011: January 25 Revolution
Although protesters in Egypt focused most of their anger on domestic issues such as poverty and government oppression, many observers noted that political change in Egypt could impact the country’s foreign affairs, affecting long-standing policies. Central elements of Egypt’s foreign policy under Mubārak and his predecessor as president, Anwar el-Sādāt, such as Egypt’s political-military alignment with the United States and the 1979 Egypt-Israel peace treaty, embraced by Egypt’s leaders but unpopular with the Egyptian public, could be weakened or rejected under a new regime.
In this special feature, Britannica provides background and context for the events unfolding in Egypt—shedding light on the political, economic, and social tensions that simmered for decades and erupted early in 2011.
Egypt facts and figures Official Name: Arab Republic of Egypt Area: 386,874 square miles (1,002,000 sq km) Population (2010 est.): 84,474,000 Age Breakdown (2009): Under 15, 31.7%; 15–29, 31.3%; 30–44, 18.5%; 45–59, 12.4%; 60–74, 5.1%; 75 and over, 1% Form of Government: Republic with two legislative houses Capital: Cairo Other Major Cities: Alexandria, Al-Jīzah, Shubrā al-Khaymah, Port Said, Suez Official Language: Arabic Official Religion: Islam Religious Affiliation (2000): Muslim, 84.4%, of which nearly all are Sunni; Christian, 15.1%, of which Orthodox are 13.6%, Protestant 0.8%, Roman Catholic 0.3%, nonreligious 0.5% Unemployment Rate (April 2009–March 2010): 9.3% Literacy Rate (2007): Total population age 15 and older, 72%; males 83.6% and females 60.7% BackgroundAdditional information on Egypt can be found in the following articles:
Angered by the continuing domination of Egyptian affairs by former colonial ruler
Great Britainand by economic inequalities in Egypt, a group of junior Egyptian military officers calling themselves the Free Officers stages a coup, forcing
King Faroukinto exile. Following the coup, Egypt is governed by the Revolutionary Command Council, a newly formed executive body led by a figurehead president,
Gen. Muḥammad Naguib. The RCC institutes popular reforms including a land reform law that redistributes land held by Egypt’s elite.
, a leader of the Free Officers, prevails in a power struggle with Naguib and becomes head of Egypt’s military government.
Egypt, eager to modernize its military, purchases Soviet weaponry through
Czechoslovakia. The arms deal undermines efforts by Britain and the United States to limit Soviet influence in the Middle East.
The United States, Britain, and the
World Bankwithdraw support for the construction of the
Aswan High Dam, the centerpiece of Nasser’s economic development program. In response, Nasser nationalizes the
Suez Canal, previously controlled by British and French interests. Britain,
France, and
Israellaunch an invasion to reestablish control over the canal zone but are forced by the United States and the Soviet Union to withdraw. Following nationalization of the
Suez Canal, a number of foreign-owned companies in Egypt are nationalized.
The Soviet Union agrees to provide funding and technical assistance for the construction of the Aswan High Dam, ushering in a period of close Egyptian-Soviet cooperation.
A set of decrees issued by Nasser initiates a wave of nationalizations in Egypt that brings most of Egypt’s manufacturing, banking, and service companies into the public sector, causing a massive expansion of the state bureaucracy.
Nasser guarantees all Egyptian university graduates jobs in government service. The ensuing boom in university enrollment means that most graduates are placed in low-paying bureaucratic positions with little chance of advancement, a long-standing source of economic frustration in Egypt.
The
June Warbegins when Israel reacts to an apparent Arab mobilization with preemptive air strikes against Syria,
Jordan, and Egypt. Israel quickly wins a decisive victory in the subsequent ground fighting, gaining control of the
Sinai Peninsulaalong with the
West Bankand the
Golan Heights. The defeat, a national humiliation for Egypt, damages the credibility of the Nasser regime and increases Egypt’s dependence on Soviet military aid.
Nasser dies of a heart attack and is succeeded as president by another member of the Free Officers,
Anwar el-Sādāt.
Egypt begins the
October Warby launching an attack across the Suez Canal in an attempt to establish leverage with Israel by demonstrating military force. The Egyptian attack is coordinated with a Syrian attack on the Golan Heights. The conflict draws in the Soviet Union and the United States, resupplying Egypt and Israel, respectively. The initial Egyptian offensive is a surprising success, but Israel stages a counterattack, and regains the upper hand. Fighting ends with a cease-fire brokered by the United States and the Soviet Union.
Sādāt’s program of economic liberalization, meant to attract foreign investment, is officially announced. Known as
infitāḥ(Arabic: “opening”), the effort is hampered by Egypt’s complicated bureaucracy, which makes doing business in Egypt difficult.
A reduction in state subsidies for some basic food products sparks demonstrations throughout Egypt, and Sādāt is forced to reinstate subsidies. Seeing the ongoing Egypt-Israel confrontation as a major contributor to Egypt’s economic difficulties, Sādāt begins to pursue peace with Israel, traveling to Jerusalem to address the Knesset in November.
Israel and Egypt sign the
Camp David Accords, leading to a peace treaty between the two countries the following year. Peace with Israel reshapes Egyptian foreign policy, strengthening Egypt’s ties to the United States while isolating Egypt from other Arab countries. Following the agreement, Israel withdraws from the
Sinai Peninsula, and Egypt receives increased amounts of economic and military aid from the United States.
While reviewing a military parade, Sādāt is assassinated by attackers with links to an Islamic militant group.
Ḥosnī Mubārak, the vice president, succeeds Sādāt. Upon becoming president, Mubārak renews Egypt’s state of emergency, instituted in 1967 and lifted by Sādāt in 1980, restricting political expression while expanding police powers and media censorship. The state of emergency remains in effect for the rest of Mubārak’s presidency.
Egyptian security forces clash with Islamic militants in Egypt. An Islamic insurgency in Egypt continues through much of the 1990s.
Seeking to destabilize the regime by targeting the tourism industry, a major source of revenue, militants kill dozens of tourists in Luxor.
The Egyptian pro-reform organization Kifaya (Arabic: “Enough”) forms. The group decries Mubārak’s seemingly unshakable hold on the presidency, holding rallies to call for free multicandidate presidential elections.
After being elected president in single-candidate referendums in 1987, 1993, and 1999, Mubārak faces challengers in a presidential election for the first time. However, the most popular opposition group in Egypt, the banned
Muslim Brotherhood, is barred from entering a candidate. Mubārak wins an overwhelming victory. The runner-up, Ayman Nour, is imprisoned on charges of fraud.
After independent candidates associated with the banned Muslim Brotherhood performed well in legislative elections in 2005, becoming the largest opposition contingent in the People’s Assembly, the ruling National Democratic Party (NDP) wins overwhelmingly in 2010 elections, virtually eliminating the opposition from the People’s Assembly. Opposition parties called for the results of the election to be annulled, claiming widespread vote rigging.
Antigovernment protests erupt in Egypt after a popular uprising in Tunisia forces the Tunisian president, Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali, from power.
An Egyptian man sets fire to himself outside the parliament building in Cairo to protest government repression. Several more Egyptians stage similar protests in apparent emulation of Mohammed Bouazizi’s suicide protest in Tunisia.
Antigovernment protests in Egypt intensify when demonstrators clash with police following Friday prayers. Internet and telephone service are disrupted in Egypt in an effort to limit the extent of demonstrations. President Mubārak imposes a curfew and deploys army units in an attempt to control unrest. The national headquarters of the NDP is burned in Cairo. As violence continues into the night, Mubārak appears on state television announcing the dismissal of his government.
For the first time in nearly three decades as president of Egypt, Mubārak appoints a vice president, selecting one of his closest advisers,
Omar Suleiman, the director of the Egyptian General Intelligence Service. Thousands of protesters remain camped out in Tahrir Square, at the centre of downtown Cairo, clashing sporadically with police.
In a televised speech, Mubārak announces that he will not stand for reelection at the end of his term in September 2011.
Violence intensifies as antigovernment protesters clash with crowds of Mubārak supporters in Tahrir Square in Cairo. It is widely believed that the groups of Mubārak supporters are plainclothes security officers and members of the NDP waging a coordinated effort to use violence to disperse the protests.
The Egyptian government holds talks with members of the opposition. The banned Muslim Brotherhood participates.
Amid widespread media reports that Mubārak is preparing to announce his resignation in a televised statement, he instead delivers a defiant address, reaffirming that he intends to remain in power until the end of his term in September.
As protests continue, Mubārak leaves Cairo for Sharm al-Shaykh, a resort town on the Sinai Peninsula where he maintains a residence. Hours later Suleiman appears on state television to announce that Mubārak has stepped down as president, leaving the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, a council of high-ranking military officers headed by the minister of defense, Mohamed Hussein Tantawi, in control.
The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces issues a statement saying that the military will hand power to an elected civilian government. A spokesman also states that Egypt will continue to abide by international treaties, implying that the 1979 peace treaty with Israel will not be challenged.
The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces suspends the constitution and dissolves Egypt’s two legislative bodies, the People’s Assembly and the Consultative Assembly. A statement by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces says a commission will be set up to draft a new constitution, to be approved by a referendum, and that the military will remain in power for six months or until new elections can be held.
The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces swears in an interim cabinet that includes members of the opposition. However, several key posts are still filled by Mubārak appointees. Demonstrators hold fresh protests calling for the replacement of the remaining Mubārak-era ministers.
Prime Minister
Ahmed Shafiq, a Mubārak appointee, resigns. He is replaced by Essam Sharaf, a critic of the Mubārak regime.
A new interim cabinet, led by Sharaf, is sworn in. The cabinet does not include officials who were close allies of Mubārak.
The State Security Investigations (SSI) agency, Egypt’s internal security service, is officially dissolved. The interior ministry announces that the agency, infamous for its operations against political dissidents and its regular use of torture, will be replaced by a new security service that will not violate Egyptians’ rights.
Egyptians approve a referendum drafted by the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces proposing constitutional changes to make elections more open, impose term limits for the president, and restrict the use of emergency laws. Although the main youth protest movements oppose the referendum, calling instead for a new constitution to be drafted before elections are held, it is approved with 77 percent of the vote.
The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces issues a constitutional declaration intended to serve as an interim constitution in place of the one suspended on February 13. The document outlines the transition to an elected government and the procedure for drafting a new constitution. It incorporates selections from the prior constitution as well as the amendments that were approved by referendum on March 19. However, the constitutional declaration comes amid procedural confusion: prior to the March 19 referendum, it had been widely understood that in the case of a “yes” vote, the suspended constitution would be amended and reinstated.
The Egyptian army uses force to clear protesters from Tahrir Square, killing two and injuring dozens. The protesters are calling for the government to investigate the finances of Mubārak and his sons, who are widely suspected of amassing large fortunes concealed in foreign bank accounts during Mubārak’s presidency.
Egypt’s public prosecutor orders the detention of Mubārak and his sons Alaa and Gamal for 15 days for questioning. Alaa and Gamal are transported from Sharm al-Shaykh to prison in Cairo. Ḥosnī Mubārak, hospitalized in Sharm al-Shaykh after suffering an apparent heart attack, is placed under formal detention.
An Egyptian court dissolves the NDP. The dissolution is seen as a concession to protesters, who remain concerned that elements of the Mubārak government still wield too much power.
An Egyptian fact-finding commission charged with investigating clashes between protesters and police during the uprising announces its estimate that 846 people were killed and 6,400 were injured between January 25 and February 11. The commission finds that most of the fatalities were caused by the security services’ deliberate use of lethal force. An earlier official estimate, made by members of the Mubārak government, had put the death toll at 365.
Egypt’s former minister of the interior, Habib al-Adly, is sentenced to 12 years in prison for financial corruption. Adly, the first Mubārak-era official to be convicted and sentenced since Mubārak left power, still awaits trial for allegedly having ordered security forces to fire on protesters.
Egypt’s public prosecutor announces that Mubārak and his sons, Alaa and Gamal, will stand trial for ordering security forces to kill protesters. They also face charges related to corruption and abuse of power.
Egypt’s interim foreign minister announces the reopening of the Rafaḥ border crossing between Egypt and Gaza; the crossing had been closed since Ḥamās took control of Gaza in 2007. Under Mubārak, Egypt’s cooperation with Israel in enforcing a blockade against Gaza was highly unpopular with the Egyptian public.
Trials for Mubārak and his sons are scheduled for August 3 in a Cairo criminal court. They will be tried for corruption and for ordering violence against protesters.
New clashes break out in Cairo between police and protesters who accuse the interim government of continuing many of the authoritarian practices of the Mubārak regime.
Seven police officers charged with killing protesters in Suez during the uprising are released from prison on bail. The decision to release the officers angers many protesters, who accuse the interim government of using delaying tactics to avoid holding former officials and police officers accountable. Clashes break out in Cairo and Suez.
Three former government ministers are acquitted on charges of corruption, further stoking popular anger.
Tens of thousands of protesters rally in Tahrir Square to demand that the interim government accelerate the pace of reforms.
As protests continue, the spokesman for the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces appears on television to deliver a strongly worded statement warning protesters that all necessary measures will be taken to prevent protesters and rioters from disrupting public order or undermining the authority of the government.
The interim government announces that nearly 700 senior police officers are being fired over the killing of protesters during the uprising.
A new cabinet is sworn in, completing a cabinet reshuffle promised by Prime Minister Sharaf to placate protesters. New ministers are appointed to more than half of the cabinet posts, but the ministers of justice and the interior, two of the main targets of the protesters’ anger, are retained.
The interim government announces that Mubārak is healthy enough to stand trial in Cairo in August. For several months, reports indicated that Mubārak was in poor health, driving rumours among protesters that his trial was likely to be canceled or postponed.
Mubārak appears in public for the first time as his trial commences in Cairo amid heavy security. After being wheeled into court in a hospital bed, Mubārak denies all charges against him. The televised proceedings sometimes descend into chaos, partly because of the large number of lawyers in court representing the families of slain protesters.
Mubārak appears in court again for the second session of his trial. The presiding judge, Ahmed Rifaat, institutes new procedures to rein in disorder in the courtroom and issues a ban on television cameras at future trial sessions, disappointing some protesters.
Gunmen attack an Israeli bus traveling in Israel near the Egyptian border, killing eight people. Five Egyptian police officers are then killed by Israeli forces pursuing the gunmen, provoking public outrage in Egypt. Israeli officials attribute the bus attack to Palestinian gunmen who they allege were able to enter Israeli territory through Egypt due to Egypt’s weak security in the Sinai Peninsula.
Tension between Egypt and Israel intensifies as Egypt threatens to withdraw its ambassador to Israel and protests are held at the Israeli Embassy in Egypt. The crisis later appears defused when Israel issues a statement of regret for the Egyptians’ deaths and then promises an investigation. However, the diplomatic standoff caused by the attack at the border is seen by many as a sign of worsening relations between Israel and Egypt in the post-Mubārak era.
Field Marshal Mohamed Tantawi, the head of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces and former minister of defense under Mubārak, is called to testify in a closed session of Mubārak’s trial. Mubārak’s former vice president and chief of intelligence, Omar Suleiman, is also called to testify.
As popular anger toward Israel builds in Egypt, protesters break into the Israeli embassy in Cairo. Six members of the embassy staff, trapped inside the building, are rescued by Egyptian commandos, and most of Israel’s diplomatic personnel are evacuated from the country. The incident brings swift condemnation from Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu, who warns that it imperils Israeli-Egyptian relations.
The interim government announces that elections for the People’s Assembly will be held on November 28.
Thousands of Coptic Christians gather in Cairo to protest the burning of a church in Upper Egypt and what they see as the security forces’ failure to protect Copts. In the worst episode of violence since Mubārak’s departure, 26 people are killed in clashes with security forces.
The interim government releases a document containing proposed “supra-constitutional principles” to guide the drafting of a new constitution. Some articles in the document outline a permanent role in the government for the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, giving it—rather than the elected government—control over military budgets and the power to propose and veto legislation related to the military and to security. The proposals in the document are rejected by both Islamist and secular political parties.
A court in Cairo overturns a ban on former members of the NDP running in parliamentary elections.
Thousands of protesters gather in Tahrir Square in Cairo to demand that the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces resign in favour of a civilian interim council. Protesters charge that the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces has adopted repressive tactics similar to those of the Mubārak regime, such as censoring the media, using military courts to try civilians, and torturing detainees.
Violence breaks out after police attempt to remove tents in Tahrir Square to prevent a long-term sit-in. More than 30 protesters are killed in clashes over the next two days.
Despite continuing violence, the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces insists that the first phase of parliamentary elections will begin on November 28 as scheduled. The civilian cabinet, led by Prime Minister Essam Sharaf, resigns as protests grow larger.
Amid demonstrations thought to be the largest in Egypt since the fall of Mubārak, Mohamed Tantawi, the head of the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces, gives a televised speech announcing the resignation of the cabinet. Addressing protesters’ fears that the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces seeks permanent power, Tantawi vows to speed up the transition to civilian government by holding presidential elections and drafting a new constitution before June 2012.
As clashes begin to subside, the government issues an apology for the deaths of about 40 protesters.
The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces announces the appointment of Kamal al-Ganzouri as prime minister. Ganzouri, an economist, previously served as prime minister under Mubārak from 1996 to 1999.
In a rare display of public criticism, the U.S. administration issues a public statement calling on the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces to end violence against prisoners and for power to be transferred to a civilian government as soon as possible.
In spite of recent unrest, the first round of voting in parliamentary elections goes forward as scheduled.
Early election returns show the highest totals for the Muslim Brotherhood’s Freedom and Justice Party and for the Nūr Party, a hard-line Islamist party.
The second of three rounds of voting for parliamentary elections begins.
Protesters demanding an immediate transfer of power to a civilian government again clash with security forces in downtown Cairo.
After photos and videos of women being beaten by police are widely circulated in the media, women hold a march in Tahrir Square protesting their treatment by security forces.
The final results of the parliamentary elections, held between November 2011 and January 2012, are announced. Islamists constitute a large majority in the newly elected People’s Assembly, with the Muslim Brotherhood’s Freedom and Justice Party winning about 47 percent of the seats in the assembly and the Nūr Party winning 25 percent.
The first session of the People’s Assembly is held. The secretary-general of the Freedom and Justice Party, Muḥammad Saʿad al-Katātnī, is appointed speaker of the assembly.
The Egyptian election commission announces that the first round of presidential elections will be held on May 23 and that, if necessary, a runoff will be held on June 16 and 17.
Breaking an earlier pledge not to submit a candidate for presidency, the Muslim Brotherhood announces that it has selected Khairat al-Shater, a businessman and senior member of the organization, to run in the upcoming presidential election as the nominee of the Freedom and Justice Party. Some observers question whether Shater, who was imprisoned in 2008 for funding the Muslim Brotherhood, would be disqualified under a rule banning candidates with previous criminal convictions.
The Supreme Presidential Election Commission unexpectedly disqualifies 10 presidential candidates, including Omar Suleiman, Khairat al-Shater, and Hazem Salah Abu-Ismail, widely considered the three front-runners. Suleiman is disqualified for failing to collect the 30,000 petition signatures required for entry into the race, Shater is disqualified for having been convicted of a crime, and Abu-Ismail, a hard-line Islamist, is disqualified under a rule banning candidates who hold foreign citizenship or have parents who hold foreign citizenship (his deceased mother had acquired dual Egyptian-U.S. citizenship). The disqualified candidates immediately appeal the commission’s ruling.
The Supreme Presidential Election Commission denies the candidates’ appeals and upholds all 10 disqualifications.
Amr Moussa and Abdul Moneim Aboul Fotouh, considered the two most prominent candidates left in the race, engage in Egypt’s first-ever televised presidential debate.
Egyptians vote in the first round of the presidential election.
The Egyptian electoral commission announces that
Ahmed Shafiq, who served as a minister in the Mubārak government, and
Mohammed Morsi, the head of the Muslim Brotherhood’s Freedom and Justice Party, have received the highest vote totals and will face off against each other in a runoff in June.
Egypt’s emergency law, which enables security forces to arrest and detain Egyptians without due process, expires after being in effect continuously since 1981 and for all but 18 months since 1967.
Ḥosnī Mubārak and Habib al-Adly, the former minister of the interior, are convicted and sentenced to life in prison for ordering the killing of protesters during the uprising in January and February 2011.
The Supreme Council of the Armed Forces imposes martial law in anticipation the Supreme Constitutional Court’s upcoming ruling on a law prohibiting former members of the Mubārak administration from holding government office. The law, if upheld, would invalidate the candidacy of Ahmed Shafiq.
The Supreme Constitutional Court overturns the law prohibiting former members of the Mubārak administration from serving in the government, permitting Ahmed Shafiq to continue his campaign. It also rules that the legislative elections carried out between November 2011 and January 2012 failed to follow procedures requiring that one-third of the seats in the People’s Assembly be reserved for independent candidates and that the newly elected People’s Assembly must therefore be dissolved. The ruling provokes a public outcry, especially among the Muslim Brotherhood, which controls the largest number of seats in the People’s Assembly.
The two-day presidential runoff election begins.
On the second day of the presidential election, the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces issues a supplementary constitutional declaration that places severe restrictions on the powers of the incoming president and grants the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces sweeping legislative and executive powers and greater authority over the constitution-writing process. The new measures are quickly denounced by pro-democracy activists and the Muslim Brotherhood.
Amid protests over the dissolution of the People’s Assembly and the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces’ constitutional declaration, Egypt’s central election commission announces that the results of the presidential election will be delayed while officials investigate complaints.
Mohammed Morsi is declared the winner of the presidential election.
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