The memory usage of a DataFrame (including the index) is shown when calling the info(). A configuration option, display.memory_usage (see the list of options), specifies if the DataFrame memory usage will be displayed when invoking the info() method.
For example, the memory usage of the DataFrame below is shown when calling info():
In [1]: dtypes = [
...: "int64",
...: "float64",
...: "datetime64[ns]",
...: "timedelta64[ns]",
...: "complex128",
...: "object",
...: "bool",
...: ]
...:
In [2]: n = 5000
In [3]: data = {t: np.random.randint(100, size=n).astype(t) for t in dtypes}
In [4]: df = pd.DataFrame(data)
In [5]: df["categorical"] = df["object"].astype("category")
In [6]: df.info()
<class 'pandas.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 5000 entries, 0 to 4999
Data columns (total 8 columns):
# Column Non-Null Count Dtype
--- ------ -------------- -----
0 int64 5000 non-null int64
1 float64 5000 non-null float64
2 datetime64[ns] 5000 non-null datetime64[ns]
3 timedelta64[ns] 5000 non-null timedelta64[ns]
4 complex128 5000 non-null complex128
5 object 5000 non-null object
6 bool 5000 non-null bool
7 categorical 5000 non-null category
dtypes: bool(1), category(1), complex128(1), datetime64[ns](1), float64(1), int64(1), object(1), timedelta64[ns](1)
memory usage: 284.1+ KB
The + symbol indicates that the true memory usage could be higher, because pandas does not count the memory used by values in columns with dtype=object.
Passing memory_usage='deep' will enable a more accurate memory usage report, accounting for the full usage of the contained objects. This is optional as it can be expensive to do this deeper introspection.
In [7]: df.info(memory_usage="deep") <class 'pandas.DataFrame'> RangeIndex: 5000 entries, 0 to 4999 Data columns (total 8 columns): # Column Non-Null Count Dtype --- ------ -------------- ----- 0 int64 5000 non-null int64 1 float64 5000 non-null float64 2 datetime64[ns] 5000 non-null datetime64[ns] 3 timedelta64[ns] 5000 non-null timedelta64[ns] 4 complex128 5000 non-null complex128 5 object 5000 non-null object 6 bool 5000 non-null bool 7 categorical 5000 non-null category dtypes: bool(1), category(1), complex128(1), datetime64[ns](1), float64(1), int64(1), object(1), timedelta64[ns](1) memory usage: 420.8 KB
By default the display option is set to True but can be explicitly overridden by passing the memory_usage argument when invoking info().
The memory usage of each column can be found by calling the memory_usage() method. This returns a Series with an index represented by column names and memory usage of each column shown in bytes. For the DataFrame above, the memory usage of each column and the total memory usage can be found with the memory_usage() method:
In [8]: df.memory_usage() Out[8]: Index 132 int64 40000 float64 40000 datetime64[ns] 40000 timedelta64[ns] 40000 complex128 80000 object 40000 bool 5000 categorical 5800 dtype: int64 # total memory usage of dataframe In [9]: df.memory_usage().sum() Out[9]: np.int64(290932)
By default the memory usage of the DataFrame index is shown in the returned Series, the memory usage of the index can be suppressed by passing the index=False argument:
In [10]: df.memory_usage(index=False) Out[10]: int64 40000 float64 40000 datetime64[ns] 40000 timedelta64[ns] 40000 complex128 80000 object 40000 bool 5000 categorical 5800 dtype: int64
The memory usage displayed by the info() method utilizes the memory_usage() method to determine the memory usage of a DataFrame while also formatting the output in human-readable units (base-2 representation; i.e. 1KB = 1024 bytes).
See also Categorical Memory Usage.
Using if/truth statements with pandas#pandas follows the NumPy convention of raising an error when you try to convert something to a bool. This happens in an if-statement or when using the boolean operations: and, or, and not. It is not clear what the result of the following code should be:
>>> if pd.Series([False, True, False]): ... pass
Should it be True because itâs not zero-length, or False because there are False values? It is unclear, so instead, pandas raises a ValueError:
In [11]: if pd.Series([False, True, False]):
....: print("I was true")
....:
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
ValueError Traceback (most recent call last)
<ipython-input-11-5c782b38cd2f> in ?()
----> 1 if pd.Series([False, True, False]):
2 print("I was true")
~/work/pandas/pandas/pandas/core/generic.py in ?(self)
1498 @final
1499 def __bool__(self) -> NoReturn:
-> 1500 raise ValueError(
1501 f"The truth value of a {type(self).__name__} is ambiguous. "
1502 "Use a.empty, a.bool(), a.item(), a.any() or a.all()."
1503 )
ValueError: The truth value of a Series is ambiguous. Use a.empty, a.bool(), a.item(), a.any() or a.all().
You need to explicitly choose what you want to do with the DataFrame, e.g. use any(), all() or empty(). Alternatively, you might want to compare if the pandas object is None:
In [12]: if pd.Series([False, True, False]) is not None:
....: print("I was not None")
....:
I was not None
Below is how to check if any of the values are True:
In [13]: if pd.Series([False, True, False]).any():
....: print("I am any")
....:
I am any
Bitwise Boolean#
Bitwise boolean operators like == and != return a boolean Series which performs an element-wise comparison when compared to a scalar.
In [14]: s = pd.Series(range(5)) In [15]: s == 4 Out[15]: 0 False 1 False 2 False 3 False 4 True dtype: bool
See boolean comparisons for more examples.
Using thein operator#
Using the Python in operator on a Series tests for membership in the index, not membership among the values.
In [16]: s = pd.Series(range(5), index=list("abcde"))
In [17]: 2 in s
Out[17]: False
In [18]: 'b' in s
Out[18]: True
If this behavior is surprising, keep in mind that using in on a Python dictionary tests keys, not values, and Series are dict-like. To test for membership in the values, use the method isin():
In [19]: s.isin([2]) Out[19]: a False b False c True d False e False dtype: bool In [20]: s.isin([2]).any() Out[20]: np.True_
For DataFrame, likewise, in applies to the column axis, testing for membership in the list of column names.
This section applies to pandas methods that take a UDF. In particular, the methods DataFrame.apply(), DataFrame.aggregate(), DataFrame.transform(), and DataFrame.filter().
It is a general rule in programming that one should not mutate a container while it is being iterated over. Mutation will invalidate the iterator, causing unexpected behavior. Consider the example:
In [21]: values = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] In [22]: n_removed = 0 In [23]: for k, value in enumerate(values): ....: idx = k - n_removed ....: if value % 2 == 1: ....: del values[idx] ....: n_removed += 1 ....: else: ....: values[idx] = value + 1 ....: In [24]: values Out[24]: [1, 4, 5]
One probably would have expected that the result would be [1, 3, 5]. When using a pandas method that takes a UDF, internally pandas is often iterating over the DataFrame or other pandas object. Therefore, if the UDF mutates (changes) the DataFrame, unexpected behavior can arise.
Here is a similar example with DataFrame.apply():
In [25]: def f(s):
....: s.pop("a")
....: return s
....:
In [26]: df = pd.DataFrame({"a": [1, 2, 3], "b": [4, 5, 6]})
In [27]: df.apply(f, axis="columns")
---------------------------------------------------------------------------
KeyError Traceback (most recent call last)
File ~/work/pandas/pandas/pandas/core/indexes/base.py:3598, in Index.get_loc(self, key)
3597 try:
-> 3598 return self._engine.get_loc(casted_key)
3599 except KeyError as err:
File ~/work/pandas/pandas/pandas/_libs/index.pyx:168, in pandas._libs.index.IndexEngine.get_loc()
File ~/work/pandas/pandas/pandas/_libs/index.pyx:197, in pandas._libs.index.IndexEngine.get_loc()
File pandas/_libs/hashtable_class_helper.pxi:7668, in pandas._libs.hashtable.PyObjectHashTable.get_item()
File pandas/_libs/hashtable_class_helper.pxi:7676, in pandas._libs.hashtable.PyObjectHashTable.get_item()
KeyError: 'a'
The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception:
KeyError Traceback (most recent call last)
Cell In[27], line 1
----> 1 df.apply(f, axis="columns")
File ~/work/pandas/pandas/pandas/core/frame.py:10640, in DataFrame.apply(self, func, axis, raw, result_type, args, by_row, engine, engine_kwargs, **kwargs)
10626 raise ValueError(f"Unknown engine '{engine}'")
10628 op = frame_apply(
10629 self,
10630 func=func,
(...) 10638 kwargs=kwargs,
10639 )
> 10640 return op.apply().__finalize__(self, method="apply")
10641 elif hasattr(engine, "__pandas_udf__"):
10642 if result_type is not None:
File ~/work/pandas/pandas/pandas/core/apply.py:1008, in FrameApply.apply(self)
1005 elif self.raw:
1006 return self.apply_raw(engine=self.engine, engine_kwargs=self.engine_kwargs)
-> 1008 return self.apply_standard()
File ~/work/pandas/pandas/pandas/core/apply.py:1160, in FrameApply.apply_standard(self)
1158 def apply_standard(self):
1159 if self.engine == "python":
-> 1160 results, res_index = self.apply_series_generator()
1161 else:
1162 results, res_index = self.apply_series_numba()
File ~/work/pandas/pandas/pandas/core/apply.py:1176, in FrameApply.apply_series_generator(self)
1173 results = {}
1175 for i, v in enumerate(series_gen):
-> 1176 results[i] = self.func(v, *self.args, **self.kwargs)
1177 if isinstance(results[i], ABCSeries):
1178 # If we have a view on v, we need to make a copy because
1179 # series_generator will swap out the underlying data
1180 results[i] = results[i].copy(deep=False)
Cell In[25], line 2, in f(s)
1 def f(s):
----> 2 s.pop("a")
3 return s
File ~/work/pandas/pandas/pandas/core/series.py:5185, in Series.pop(self, item)
5154 def pop(self, item: Hashable) -> Any:
5155 """
5156 Return item and drops from series. Raise KeyError if not found.
5157
(...) 5183 dtype: int64
5184 """
-> 5185 return super().pop(item=item)
File ~/work/pandas/pandas/pandas/core/generic.py:839, in NDFrame.pop(self, item)
838 def pop(self, item: Hashable) -> Series | Any:
--> 839 result = self[item]
840 del self[item]
842 return result
File ~/work/pandas/pandas/pandas/core/series.py:949, in Series.__getitem__(self, key)
944 key = unpack_1tuple(key)
946 elif key_is_scalar:
947 # Note: GH#50617 in 3.0 we changed int key to always be treated as
948 # a label, matching DataFrame behavior.
--> 949 return self._get_value(key)
951 # Convert generator to list before going through hashable part
952 # (We will iterate through the generator there to check for slices)
953 if is_iterator(key):
File ~/work/pandas/pandas/pandas/core/series.py:1036, in Series._get_value(self, label, takeable)
1033 return self._values[label]
1035 # Similar to Index.get_value, but we do not fall back to positional
-> 1036 loc = self.index.get_loc(label)
1038 if is_integer(loc):
1039 return self._values[loc]
File ~/work/pandas/pandas/pandas/core/indexes/base.py:3605, in Index.get_loc(self, key)
3600 if isinstance(casted_key, slice) or (
3601 isinstance(casted_key, abc.Iterable)
3602 and any(isinstance(x, slice) for x in casted_key)
3603 ):
3604 raise InvalidIndexError(key) from err
-> 3605 raise KeyError(key) from err
3606 except TypeError:
3607 # If we have a listlike key, _check_indexing_error will raise
3608 # InvalidIndexError. Otherwise we fall through and re-raise
3609 # the TypeError.
3610 self._check_indexing_error(key)
KeyError: 'a'
To resolve this issue, one can make a copy so that the mutation does not apply to the container being iterated over.
In [28]: values = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] In [29]: n_removed = 0 In [30]: for k, value in enumerate(values.copy()): ....: idx = k - n_removed ....: if value % 2 == 1: ....: del values[idx] ....: n_removed += 1 ....: else: ....: values[idx] = value + 1 ....: In [31]: values Out[31]: [1, 3, 5]
In [32]: def f(s):
....: s = s.copy()
....: s.pop("a")
....: return s
....:
In [33]: df = pd.DataFrame({"a": [1, 2, 3], 'b': [4, 5, 6]})
In [34]: df.apply(f, axis="columns")
Out[34]:
b
0 4
1 5
2 6
Missing value representation for NumPy types# np.nan as the NA representation for NumPy types#
For lack of NA (missing) support from the ground up in NumPy and Python in general, NA could have been represented with:
A masked array solution: an array of data and an array of boolean values indicating whether a value is there or is missing.
Using a special sentinel value, bit pattern, or set of sentinel values to denote NA across the dtypes.
The special value np.nan (Not-A-Number) was chosen as the NA value for NumPy types, and there are API functions like DataFrame.isna() and DataFrame.notna() which can be used across the dtypes to detect NA values. However, this choice has a downside of coercing missing integer data as float types as shown in Support for integer NA.
NA type promotions for NumPy types#
When introducing NAs into an existing Series or DataFrame via reindex() or some other means, boolean and integer types will be promoted to a different dtype in order to store the NAs. The promotions are summarized in this table:
NA#
In the absence of high performance NA support being built into NumPy from the ground up, the primary casualty is the ability to represent NAs in integer arrays. For example:
In [35]: s = pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], index=list("abcde"))
In [36]: s
Out[36]:
a 1
b 2
c 3
d 4
e 5
dtype: int64
In [37]: s.dtype
Out[37]: dtype('int64')
In [38]: s2 = s.reindex(["a", "b", "c", "f", "u"])
In [39]: s2
Out[39]:
a 1.0
b 2.0
c 3.0
f NaN
u NaN
dtype: float64
In [40]: s2.dtype
Out[40]: dtype('float64')
This trade-off is made largely for memory and performance reasons, and also so that the resulting Series continues to be ânumericâ.
If you need to represent integers with possibly missing values, use one of the nullable-integer extension dtypes provided by pandas or pyarrow
In [41]: s_int = pd.Series([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], index=list("abcde"), dtype=pd.Int64Dtype())
In [42]: s_int
Out[42]:
a 1
b 2
c 3
d 4
e 5
dtype: Int64
In [43]: s_int.dtype
Out[43]: Int64Dtype()
In [44]: s2_int = s_int.reindex(["a", "b", "c", "f", "u"])
In [45]: s2_int
Out[45]:
a 1
b 2
c 3
f <NA>
u <NA>
dtype: Int64
In [46]: s2_int.dtype
Out[46]: Int64Dtype()
In [47]: s_int_pa = pd.Series([1, 2, None], dtype="int64[pyarrow]")
In [48]: s_int_pa
Out[48]:
0 1
1 2
2 <NA>
dtype: int64[pyarrow]
See Nullable integer data type and PyArrow Functionality for more.
Why not make NumPy like R?#Many people have suggested that NumPy should simply emulate the NA support present in the more domain-specific statistical programming language R. Part of the reason is the NumPy type hierarchy.
The R language, by contrast, only has a handful of built-in data types: integer, numeric (floating-point), character, and boolean. NA types are implemented by reserving special bit patterns for each type to be used as the missing value. While doing this with the full NumPy type hierarchy would be possible, it would be a more substantial trade-off (especially for the 8- and 16-bit data types) and implementation undertaking.
However, R NA semantics are now available by using masked NumPy types such as Int64Dtype or PyArrow types (ArrowDtype).
For Series and DataFrame objects, var() normalizes by N-1 to produce unbiased estimates of the population variance, while NumPyâs numpy.var() normalizes by N, which measures the variance of the sample. Note that cov() normalizes by N-1 in both pandas and NumPy.
pandas is not 100% thread safe. The known issues relate to the copy() method. If you are doing a lot of copying of DataFrame objects shared among threads, we recommend holding locks inside the threads where the data copying occurs.
See this link for more information.
Byte-ordering issues#Occasionally you may have to deal with data that were created on a machine with a different byte order than the one on which you are running Python. A common symptom of this issue is an error like:
Traceback
...
ValueError: Big-endian buffer not supported on little-endian compiler
To deal with this issue you should convert the underlying NumPy array to the native system byte order before passing it to Series or DataFrame constructors using something similar to the following:
In [49]: x = np.array(list(range(10)), ">i4") # big endian In [50]: newx = x.byteswap().view(x.dtype.newbyteorder()) # force native byteorder In [51]: s = pd.Series(newx)
See the NumPy documentation on byte order for more details.
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