Abramowitz JS (2004) Treatment of obsessive-compulsive disorder in patients who have comorbid major depression.J. Clin. Psychol. 60, 1133–1141.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Adams DB (1979) Brain mechanisms for offense, defense, and submission.Behav. Brain Sciences 2, 201–241.

Google Scholar 

Alexander GE, MR Delong and PL Strick (1986) Parallel organization of functionally segregated circuits linking basal ganglia and cortex.Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 9, 357–381.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Berridge KC (2003) Comparing the emotional brain of humans and other animals, In:Handbook of Affective Sciences (Davidson RJ, KR Scherer and HH Goldsmith, Eds.) (Oxford University Press: Oxford), pp 25–51.

Google Scholar 

Berrios GE and IS Marková (2002) Conceptual issues, In:Biological Psychiatry (D’haenen HAH, JA Boer and P Willner, Eds.) (Wiley: Chichester), pp 3–24.

Google Scholar 

Blanchard DC and RJ Blanchard (1988) Ethoexperimental approaches to the biology of emotion.Annu. Rev. Psychol. 39, 43–68.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Bogenschutz MP and HG Nurnberg (2000) Theoretical and methodological issues in psychiatric comorbidity.Harv. Rev. Psychiatry 8, 18–24.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Bolles RC and MS Fanselow (1980) A perceptual-defensive-recuperative model of fear and pain.Behav. Brain Sci. 3, 291–323.

Google Scholar 

Bottas A, RG Cooke and MA Richter (2005) Comorbidity and pathophysiology of obsessive-compulsive disorder in schizophrenia: is there evidence for a schizo-obsessive subtype of schizophrenia?J. Psychiatry Neurosci. 30, 187–193.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Brown RG and G Pluck (2000) Negative symptoms: the ‘pathology’ of motivation and goal-directed behaviour.Trends Neurosci. 23, 412–417.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Chance MR (1984) Biological systems synthesis of mentality and the nature of the two modes of mental operation: hedonic and agonic.Man. Environment Systems 14, 143–157.

Google Scholar 

Clark A (1980)Psychological Models and Neural Mechanisms: an Examination of Reductionism in Psychology (Clarendon Press: Oxford).

Google Scholar 

Curio E (1993) Proximate and developmental aspects of antipredator behavior.Adv. Study Behav. 22, 135–238.

Article  Google Scholar 

Davidson RJ (1998) Affective style and affective disorders: perspectives from affective neuroscience.Cognition & Emotion 12, 307–330.

Article  Google Scholar 

Davidson RJ, DC Jackson and NH Kalin (2000) Emotion, plasticity, context, and regulation: perspectives from affective neuroscience.Psychol. Bull. 126, 890–909.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

du Toit PL, J van Kradenburg, D Niehaus and DJ Stein (2001) Comparison of obsessive-compulsive disorder patients with and without comorbid putative obsessive-compulsive spectrum disorders using a structured clinical interview.Compr. Psychiatry 42, 291–300.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Dvorkin A, ML Perreault and H Szechtman (2006) Development and temporal organization of compulsive checking induced by repeated injections of the dopamine agonist quinpirole in an animal model of obsessive-compulsive disorder.Behav. Brain Res. 169(2), 303–311. Epub 2006 Mar 9.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Emmelkamp PM and KG Kwee (1977) Obsessional ruminations: a comparison between thought-stopping and prolonged exposure in imagination.Behav. Res. Ther. 15, 441–444.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Everitt BJ and ME Wolf (2002) Psychomotor stimulant addiction: a neural systems perspective.J. Neurosci. 22, 3312–3320.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Fireman B, LM Koran, JL Leventhal and A Jacobson (2001) The prevalence of clinically recognized obsessive-compulsive disorder in a large health maintenance organization.Am. J. Psychiatry 158, 1904–1910.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Gilbert P, (1989)Human Nature and Suffering (Lawrence Erlbaum: Hove and London).

Google Scholar 

Glickman SE and BB Schiff (1967) A biological theory of reinforcement.Psychol. Rev. 74, 81–109.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Gross-Isseroff R, H Hermesh and A Weizman (2001) Obsessive compulsive behaviour in autism — towards an autistic-obsessive compulsive syndrome?World J. Biol. Psychiatry 2, 193–197.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Hebb DO (1966)A Textbook of Psychology (Saunders: Philadelphia).

Google Scholar 

Hollander E, A King, K Delaney, CJ Smith and JM Silverman (2003) Obsessive-compulsive behaviors in parents of multiplex autism families.Psychiatry Res. 117, 11–16.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hollander E, E Anagnostou, W Chaplin, K Esposito, MM Haznedar, E Licalzi, S Wasserman, L Soorya and M Buchsbaum (2005) Striatal volume on magnetic resonance imaging and repetitive behaviors in autism.Biol. Psychiatry 58, 226–232.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lima SL and PA Bednekoff (1999) Temporal variation in danger drives antipredator behavior: the predation risk allocation hypothesis.Am. Naturalist 153, 649–659.

Article  Google Scholar 

MacDonnell MF and JP Flynn (1966) Control of sensory fields by stimulation of hypothalamus.Science 152, 1406–1408.

Article  Google Scholar 

Marks IM and RM Nesse (1994) Fear and fitness: an evolutionary analysis of anxiety disorders.Ethology and Sociobiology 15, 247–261.

Article  Google Scholar 

Masterson FA and M Crawford (1982) The defense motivation system — a theory of avoidance-behavior.Behav. Brain Sci. 5, 661–675.

Article  Google Scholar 

McKay D, JS Abramowitz, JE Calamari, M Kyrios, A Radomsky, D Sookman, S Taylor and S Wilhelm (2004) A critical evaluation of obsessive-compulsive disorder subtypes: symptoms versus mechanisms.Clin. Psychol. Rev. 24, 283–313.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Micali N, S Chakrabarti and E Fombonne (2004) The broad autism phenotype: findings from an epidemiological survey.Autism 8, 21–37.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Modell JG, JM Mountz, GC Curtis and JF Greden (1989) Neurophysiologic dysfunction in basal ganglia/limbic striatal and thalamocortical circuits as a pathogenetic mechanism of obsessive-compulsive disorder.J. Neuropsychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 1, 27–36.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Nestadt G, J Samuels, MA Riddle, KY Liang, OJ Bienvenu, R HoehnSaric, M Grados and B Cullen (2001) The relationship between obsessive-compulsive disorder and anxiety and affective disorders: results from the Johns Hopkins OCD Family Study.Psychol. Med. 31, 481–487.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Nestadt G, A Addington, J Samuels, KY Liang, OJ Bienvenu, M Riddle, M Grados, R Hoehn-Saric and B Cullen (2003) The identification of OCD-related subgroups based on comorbidity.Biol. Psychiatry 53, 914–920.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ohman A and S Mineka (2001) Fears, phobias, and preparedness: toward an evolved module of fear and fear learning.Psychol. Rev. 108, 483–522.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Pitman RK (1989) Animal models of compulsive behavior.Biol. Psychiatry 26, 189–198.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Porges SW (2001) The polyvagal theory: phylogenetic substrates of a social nervous system.Int. J. Psychophysiol. 42, 123–146.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Porges SW (2003) The polyvagal theory: phylogenetic contributions to social behavior.Physiol. Behav. 79, 503–513.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Purdon C and DA Clark (1999) Meta-cognition and obsessions.Clin. Psychol. Psychotherapy 6, 96–101.

Article  Google Scholar 

Rachman S (1997) A cognitive theory of obsessions.Behav. Res. Ther. 35, 793–802.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Rachman S (1998) A cognitive theory of obsessions: elaborations.Behav. Res. Ther. 36, 385–401.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Rapoport JL (1989)The Boy Who Couldn’t Stop Washing: The Experience and Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (E. P. Dutton: New York).

Google Scholar 

Rauch SL, PJ Whalen, T Curran, LM Shin, BJ Coffey, CR Savage, SC McInerney, L Baer and MA Jenike (2001) Probing striato-thalamic function in obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette syndrome using neuroimaging methods.Adv. Neurol. 85, 207–224.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Reed GF (1968) Some formal qualities of obsessional thinking.Psychiatr. Clin. (Basel) 1, 382–392.

CAS  Google Scholar 

Reed GF (1983) Obsessional-compulsive disorder: a cognitive/structural approach.Can. Psychol. 24, 169–180.

Google Scholar 

Reed GF (1985)Obsessional Experience and Compulsive Behaviour: A Cognitive-Structural Approach (Academic Press, Inc.: Orlando, FL).

Google Scholar 

Riccardi JN and RJ McNally (1995) Depressed mood is related to obsessions but not compulsions in obsessive-compulsive disorder.J. Anxiety Disord. 9, 256.

Google Scholar 

Russell AJ, D Mataix-Cols, M Anson and DG Murphy (2005) Obsessions and compulsions in Asperger syndrome and high-functioning autism.Br. J. Psychiatry 186, 525–528.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Salkovskis PM (1985) Obsessional-compulsive problems: a cognitive-behavioural analysis.Behav. Res. Ther. 23, 571–583.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Salkovskis PM (1989) Cognitive-behavioural factors and the persistence of intrusive thoughts in obsessional problems.Behav. Res. Ther. 27, 677–682.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Salkovskis PM (1998) Psychological approaches to the understanding of obsessional problems, In:Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder: Theory, Research, and Treatment (Swinson RP, MM Antony, S Rachman and MA Richter, Eds.) (Guiford Press: New York, NY), pp 33–50.

Google Scholar 

Salkovskis PM and D Westbrook (1989) Behaviour therapy and obsessional ruminations: can failure be turned into success?Behav. Res. Ther. 27, 149–160.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Starcevic V (2005) Psychiatric comorbidity: concepts, controversies and alternatives.Australas Psychiatry 13, 375–378.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Steketee G (1993)Treatment of Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (Guiford Press: New York, NY).

Google Scholar 

Steketee G and L Cleere (1990) Obsessional-compulsive disorders, In:International Handbook of Behavior Modification and Therapy (Hersen M, AS Bellack and AE Kazdin, Eds.) (Plenum Press: New York, NY), pp 307–332.

Google Scholar 

Stern RS (1978) Obsessive thoughts: the problem of therapy.Br. J. Psychiatry 133, 200–205.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Summerfeldt LJ and NS Endler (1998) Examining the evidence for anxiety-related cognitive biases in obsessive-compulsive disorder.J. Anxiety Disord. 12, 579–598.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Szechtman H (1980) Redirected oral behavior in rats induced by tail-pinch and electrical stimulation of the tail.Physiol. Behav. 24, 57–64.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Szechtman H and D Eilam (2005) Psychiatric models, In:The Behavior of the Laboratory Rat: A Handbook With Tests (Whishaw IQ and B Kolb, Eds.) (Oxford University Press:New York, NY), pp 462–474.

Google Scholar 

Szechtman H and E Woody (2004) Obsessive-compulsive disorder as a disturbance of security motivation.Psychol. Rev. 111, 111–127.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Teitelbaum P (1967)Physiological Psychology: Fundamental Principles (Prentice-Hall:Englewood Cliffs, NJ).

Google Scholar 

Toates F and O Coschug-Toates (2002)Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (Class Publishing:London).

Google Scholar 

Tolkamp BJ and I Kyriazakis (1999) To split behaviour into bouts, log-transform the intervals.Anim. Behav. 57, 807–817.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tolkamp BJ, DJ Allcroft, EJ Austin, BL Nielsen and I Kyriazakis (1998) Satiety splits feeding behaviour into bouts.J. Theor. Biol. 194, 235–250.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Trower P, P Gilbert and G Sherling (1990) Social anxiety, evolution, and self-presentation: an interdisciplinary perspective, In:Handbook of Social and Evaluation Anxiety (Leitenberg H Ed.), (Plenum Press: New York, NY), pp 11–45.

Google Scholar 

Tukel R, A Polat, O Ozdemir, D Aksut and N Turksoy (2002) Comorbid conditions in obsessive-compulsive disorder.Compr. Psychiatry 43, 204–209.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wells A (1997)Cognitive Therapy of Anxiety Disorders: a Practice Manual and Conceptual Guide (John Wiley and Sons, Inc.:New York, NY).

Google Scholar 

Wise S and JL Rapoport (1989) Obsessive compulsive disorder — is it a basal ganglia dysfunction? In:Obsessive Compulsive Disorder in Children and Adolescence (Rapoport J, Ed.) (Am. Psychiatric Press: Washington, DC), pp 327–344.

Google Scholar 

Woody S and S Rachman (1994) Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) as an unsuccessful search for safety.Clin. Psychol. Rev. 14, 743–753.

Article  Google Scholar 

Woody E and H Szechtman (2000) Hypnotic hallucinationsandyedas-entience.Contemporary Hypnosis 17, 26–31.

Article  Google Scholar 

Woody EZ and H Szechtman (2005) Motivation, time course, and heterogeneity in obsessive-compulsive disorder: response to Taylor, McKay, and Abramowitz.Psychol. Rev. 112, 658–661.

Article  Google Scholar 

Woody EZ, V Lewis, L Snider, H Grant, M Kamath and H Szechtman (2005) Induction of compulsive-like washing by blocking the feeling of knowing: an experimental test of the security-motivation hypothesis of obsessive-compulsive disorder.Behav. Brain Funct. 1, 11.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yeates MP, BJ Tolkamp, DJ Allcroft and I Kyriazakis (2001) The use of mixed distribution models to determine bout criteria for analysis of animal behaviour.J. Theor. Biol. 213, 413–425.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar