GHC is built on a raft of primitive data types and operations; âprimitiveâ in the sense that they cannot be defined in Haskell itself. While you really can use this stuff to write fast code, we generally find it a lot less painful, and more satisfying in the long run, to use higher-level language features and libraries. With any luck, the code you write will be optimised to the efficient unboxed version in any case. And if it isnât, weâd like to know about it.
All these primitive data types and operations are exported by the module GHC.Exts.
If you want to mention any of the primitive data types or operations in your program, you must first import GHC.Exts to bring them into scope. Many of them have names ending in #, and to mention such names you need the MagicHash extension.
To enable defining literals for other primitive data types, see the ExtendedLiterals extension.
The primops make extensive use of unboxed types and unboxed tuples, which we briefly summarise here.
6.16.1. Unboxed types¶Most types in GHC are boxed, which means that values of that type are represented by a pointer to a heap object. The representation of a Haskell Int, for example, is a two-word heap object. An unboxed type, however, is represented by the value itself, no pointers or heap allocation are involved.
Unboxed types correspond to the âraw machineâ types you would use in C: Int# (long int), Double# (double), Addr# (void *), etc. The primitive operations (PrimOps) on these types are what you might expect; e.g., (+#) is addition on Int#s, and is the machine-addition that we all know and loveâusually one instruction.
Primitive (unboxed) types cannot be defined in Haskell, and are therefore built into the language and compiler. Primitive types are always unlifted; that is, a value of a primitive type cannot be bottom. (Note: a âboxedâ type means that a value is represented by a pointer to a heap object; a âliftedâ type means that terms of that type may be bottom. See the next paragraph for an example.) We use the convention (but it is only a convention) that primitive types, values, and operations have a # suffix (see The magic hash). For some primitive types we have special syntax for literals, also described in the same section.
Primitive values are often represented by a simple bit-pattern, such as Int#, Float#, Double#. But this is not necessarily the case: a primitive value might be represented by a pointer to a heap-allocated object. Examples include Array#, the type of primitive arrays. Thus, Array# is an unlifted, boxed type. A primitive array is heap-allocated because it is too big a value to fit in a register, and would be too expensive to copy around; in a sense, it is accidental that it is represented by a pointer. If a pointer represents a primitive value, then it really does point to that value: no unevaluated thunks, no indirections. Nothing can be at the other end of the pointer than the primitive value. A numerically-intensive program using unboxed types can go a lot faster than its âstandardâ counterpartâwe saw a threefold speedup on one example.
Because unboxed types are represented without the use of pointers, we cannot store them in a polymorphic data type. For example, the Just node of Just 42# would have to be different from the Just node of Just 42; the former stores an integer directly, while the latter stores a pointer. GHC currently does not support this variety of Just nodes (nor for any other data type). Accordingly, the kind of an unboxed type is different from the kind of a boxed type.
The Haskell Report describes that * (spelled Type and imported from Data.Kind in the GHC dialect of Haskell) is the kind of ordinary data types, such as Int. Furthermore, type constructors can have kinds with arrows; for example, Maybe has kind Type -> Type. Unboxed types have a kind that specifies their runtime representation. For example, the type Int# has kind TYPE IntRep and Double# has kind TYPE DoubleRep. These kinds say that the runtime representation of an Int# is a machine integer, and the runtime representation of a Double# is a machine double-precision floating point. In contrast, the kind Type is actually just a synonym for TYPE LiftedRep. More details of the TYPE mechanisms appear in the section on runtime representation polymorphism.
Given that Int#âs kind is not Type, then it follows that Maybe Int# is disallowed. Similarly, because type variables tend to be of kind Type (for example, in (.) :: (b -> c) -> (a -> b) -> a -> c, all the type variables have kind Type), polymorphism tends not to work over primitive types. Stepping back, this makes some sense, because a polymorphic function needs to manipulate the pointers to its data, and most primitive types are unboxed.
There are some restrictions on the use of primitive types:
You cannot define a newtype whose representation type (the argument type of the data constructor) is an unboxed type. Thus, this is illegal:
However, this restriction can be relaxed by enabling UnliftedNewtypes. The section on unlifted newtypes details the behavior of such types.
You cannot bind a variable with an unboxed type in a top-level binding.
You cannot bind a variable with an unboxed type in a recursive binding.
You may bind unboxed variables in a (non-recursive, non-top-level) pattern binding, but you must make any such pattern-match strict. (Failing to do so emits a warning -Wunbanged-strict-patterns.) For example, rather than:
data Foo = Foo Int Int# f x = let (Foo a b, w) = ..rhs.. in ..body..
you must write:
data Foo = Foo Int Int# f x = let !(Foo a b, w) = ..rhs.. in ..body..
since b has type Int#. See Dynamic semantics of bang patterns.
6.8.1
Unboxed tuples arenât really exported by GHC.Exts; they are a syntactic extension (UnboxedTuples). An unboxed tuple looks like this:
where e_1..e_n are expressions of any type (primitive or non-primitive). The type of an unboxed tuple looks the same.
Note that when unboxed tuples are enabled, (# is a single lexeme, so for example when using operators like # and #- you need to write ( # ) and ( #- ) rather than (#) and (#-).
Unboxed tuples are used for functions that need to return multiple values, but they avoid the heap allocation normally associated with using fully-fledged tuples. When an unboxed tuple is returned, the components are put directly into registers or on the stack; the unboxed tuple itself does not have a composite representation. Many of the primitive operations listed in primops.txt.pp return unboxed tuples. In particular, the IO and ST monads use unboxed tuples to avoid unnecessary allocation during sequences of operations.
The typical use of unboxed tuples is simply to return multiple values, binding those multiple results with a case expression, thus:
f x y = (# x+1, y-1 #)
g x = case f x x of { (# a, b #) -> a + b }
You can have an unboxed tuple in a pattern binding, thus
f x = let (# p,q #) = h x in ..body..
If the types of p and q are not unboxed, the resulting binding is lazy like any other Haskell pattern binding. The above example desugars like this:
f x = let t = case h x of { (# p,q #) -> (p,q) }
p = fst t
q = snd t
in ..body..
Indeed, the bindings can even be recursive. See Dynamic semantics of bang patterns for a more precise account.
To refer to the unboxed tuple type constructors themselves, e.g. if you want to attach instances to them, use (# #), (#,#), (#,,#), etc. This mirrors the syntax for boxed tuples (), (,), (,,), etc.
8.2.1
Enable the use of unboxed sum syntax. Implied by UnboxedTuples.
-XUnboxedSums enables new syntax for anonymous, unboxed sum types. The syntax for an unboxed sum type with N alternatives is
(# t_1 | t_2 | ... | t_N #)
where t_1 ⦠t_N are types (which can be unlifted, including unboxed tuples and sums).
Unboxed tuples can be used for multi-arity alternatives. For example:
(# (# Int, String #) | Bool #)
The term level syntax is similar. Leading and preceding bars (|) indicate which alternative it is. Here are two terms of the type shown above:
(# (# 1, "foo" #) | #) -- first alternative (# | True #) -- second alternative
The pattern syntax reflects the term syntax:
case x of (# (# i, str #) | #) -> ... (# | bool #) -> ...
Note that spaces are always required around bars. For example, (# | 1# | | #) is valid, but (# | 1# || #) and (#| 1# | | #) are both invalid.
The type constructors themselves can be written in prefix form as (# | #), (# | | #), (# | | | #), etc. Partial applications must also use prefix form, i.e. (# | #) Int#. Saturated applications can be written either way, so that (# | #) Int# Float# is equivalent to (# Int# | Float# #).
Unboxed sums are âunboxedâ in the sense that, instead of allocating sums in the heap and representing values as pointers, unboxed sums are represented as their components, just like unboxed tuples. These âcomponentsâ depend on alternatives of a sum type. Like unboxed tuples, unboxed sums are lazy in their lifted components.
The code generator tries to generate as compact layout as possible for each unboxed sum. In the best case, size of an unboxed sum is size of its biggest alternative plus one word (for a tag). The algorithm for generating the memory layout for a sum type works like this:
All types are classified as one of these classes: 32bit word, 64bit word, 32bit float, 64bit float, pointer.
For each alternative of the sum type, a layout that consists of these fields is generated. For example, if an alternative has Int, Float# and String fields, the layout will have an 32bit word, 32bit float and pointer fields.
Layout fields are then overlapped so that the final layout will be as compact as possible. For example, suppose we have the unboxed sum:
(# (# Word32#, String, Float# #) | (# Float#, Float#, Maybe Int #) #)
The final layout will be something like
Int32, Float32, Float32, Word32, Pointer
The first Int32 is for the tag. There are two Float32 fields because floating point types canât overlap with other types, because of limitations of the code generator that weâre hoping to overcome in the future. The second alternative needs two Float32 fields: The Word32 field is for the Word32# in the first alternative. The Pointer field is shared between String and Maybe Int values of the alternatives.
As another example, this is the layout for the unboxed version of Maybe a type, (# (# #) | a #):
The Pointer field is not used when tag says that itâs Nothing. Otherwise Pointer points to the value in Just. As mentioned above, this type is lazy in its lifted field. Therefore, the type
data Maybe' a = Maybe' (# (# #) | a #)
is precisely isomorphic to the type Maybe a, although its memory representation is different.
In the degenerate case where all the alternatives have zero width, such as the Bool-like (# (# #) | (# #) #), the unboxed sum layout only has an Int32 tag field (i.e., the whole thing is represented by an integer).
8.10.1
Enable the use of newtypes over types with non-lifted runtime representations.
GHC implements an UnliftedNewtypes extension as specified in the GHC proposal #98. UnliftedNewtypes relaxes the restrictions around what types can appear inside of a newtype. For example, the type
is accepted when this extension is enabled. This creates a type A :: TYPE IntRep and a data constructor MkA :: Int# -> A. Although the kind of A is inferred by GHC, there is nothing visually distinctive about this type that indicated that is it not of kind Type like newtypes typically are. GADTSyntax can be used to provide a kind signature for additional clarity
newtype A :: TYPE IntRep where MkA :: Int# -> A
The Coercible machinery works with unlifted newtypes just like it does with lifted types. In either of the equivalent formulations of A given above, users would additionally have access to a coercion between A and Int#.
As a consequence of the representation-polymorphic binder restriction, representation-polymorphic fields are disallowed in data constructors of data types declared using data. However, since newtype data constructor application is implemented as a coercion instead of as function application, this restriction does not apply to the field inside a newtype data constructor. Thus, the type checker accepts
newtype Identity# :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep). TYPE r -> TYPE r where MkIdentity# :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep) (a :: TYPE r). a -> Identity# a
And with UnboxedSums enabled
newtype Maybe# :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep). TYPE r -> TYPE (SumRep '[r, TupleRep '[]]) where MkMaybe# :: forall (r :: RuntimeRep) (a :: TYPE r). (# a | (# #) #) -> Maybe# a
This extension also relaxes some of the restrictions around data family instances. In particular, UnliftedNewtypes permits a newtype instance to be given a return kind of TYPE r, not just Type. For example, the following newtype instance declarations would be permitted:
class Foo a where data FooKey a :: TYPE IntRep class Bar (r :: RuntimeRep) where data BarType r :: TYPE r instance Foo Bool where newtype FooKey Bool = FooKeyBoolC Int# instance Bar WordRep where newtype BarType WordRep = BarTypeWordRepC Word#
It is worth noting that UnliftedNewtypes is not required to give the data families themselves return kinds involving TYPE, such as the FooKey and BarType examples above. The extension is only required for newtype instance declarations, such as FooKeyBoolC and BarTypeWorkRepC above.
This extension impacts the determination of whether or not a newtype has a Complete User-Supplied Kind (CUSK). The exact impact is specified the section on CUSKs.
6.16.6. Unlifted Datatypes¶9.2.1
Enable the declaration of data types with unlifted or levity-polymorphic result kind.
GHC implements the UnliftedDatatypes extension as specified in the GHC proposal #265. UnliftedDatatypes relaxes the restrictions around what result kinds are allowed in data declarations. For example, the type
data UList a :: UnliftedType where UCons :: a -> UList a -> UList a UNil :: UList a
defines a list type that lives in kind UnliftedType (e.g., TYPE (BoxedRep Unlifted)). As such, each occurrence of a term of that type is assumed to be evaluated (and the compiler makes sure that is indeed the case). In other words: Unlifted data types behave like data types in strict languages such as OCaml or Idris. However unlike StrictData, this extension will not change whether the fields of a (perhaps unlifted) data type are strict or lazy. For example, UCons is lazy in its first argument as its field has kind Type.
The fact that unlifted types are always evaluated allows GHC to elide evaluatedness checks at runtime. See the Motivation section of the proposal for how this can improve performance for some programs.
The above data declaration in GADT syntax correctly suggests that unlifted data types are compatible with the full GADT feature set. Somewhat conversely, you can also declare unlifted data types in Haskell98 syntax, which requires you to specify the result kind via StandaloneKindSignatures:
type UList :: Type -> UnliftedType data UList a = UCons a (UList a) | UNil
You may even declare levity-polymorphic data types:
type PEither :: Type -> Type -> TYPE (BoxedRep l) data PEither l r = PLeft l | PRight r f :: PEither @Unlifted Int Bool -> Bool f (PRight b) = b f _ = False
While f above could reasonably be levity-polymorphic (as it evaluates its argument either way), GHC currently disallows the more general type PEither @l Int Bool -> Bool. This is a consequence of the representation-polymorphic binder restriction.
Pattern matching against an unlifted data type work just like that for lifted types; but see Dynamic semantics of bang patterns for the semantics of pattern bindings involving unlifted data types.
Due to #19487, it is not currently possible to declare levity-polymorphic data types with nullary data constructors. There is a workaround, though:
type T :: TYPE (BoxedRep l) data T where MkT :: forall l. (() :: Constraint) => T @l
The use of => makes the type of MkT lifted. If you want a zero-runtime-cost alternative, use MkT :: Proxy# () -> T @l instead and bear with the additional proxy# argument at construction sites.
This extension also relaxes some of the restrictions around data family instances. In particular, UnliftedDatatypes permits a data instance to be given a return kind that unifies with TYPE (BoxedRep l), not just Type. For example, the following data instance declarations would be permitted:
data family F a :: UnliftedType data instance F Int = FInt data family G a :: TYPE (BoxedRep l) data instance G Int = GInt Int -- defaults to Type data instance G Bool :: UnliftedType where GBool :: Bool -> G Bool data instance G Char :: Type where GChar :: Char -> G Char data instance G Double :: forall l. TYPE (BoxedRep l) where GDouble :: Int -> G @l Double
It is worth noting that UnliftedDatatypes is not required to give the data families themselves return kinds involving TYPE, such as the G example above. The extension is only required for data instance declarations, such as FInt and GBool above.
Primitive string literals, also called unboxed string literals or Addr# literals, are string literals with a postfix hash sign #. They are enabled by the MagicHash extension and have type Addr#.
A primitive string literal represents a sequence of bytes. You can embed a NUL byte like "foo\0bar"#, which corresponds to the bytes [102,111,111,0,98,97,114] :: [Word8] (with an implicit NUL at the end). Further, you can only embed a character whose code is less than 256; "\xFF"# is valid and represents [255] :: [Word8], but "\x3B1"# is invalid. In other words, it is encoded in Latin-1.
Like C strings, primitive string literals are implicitly terminated by a NUL byte.
Primitive string literals are immutable and attempting to write to their address results in undefined behavior.
6.16.8. Desugaring of string literals¶An ASCII string literal without a NUL byte is desugared into a call to GHC.CString.unpackCString# with the content as a primitive string literal. For example, "some string" is translated into GHC.CString.unpackCString# "some string"#.
If the string contains NUL bytes or non-ASCII characters (characters with code points >= 128), the string is encoded in Modified UTF-8 and then passed to GHC.CString.unpackCStringUtf8#. Modified UTF-8 differs from standard UTF-8 in two ways:
The NUL byte is encoded as "\xC0\x80"# (i.e. an over-long encoding of U+0000).
Surrogate code points are allowed and encoded like other code points.
Examples:
"Hello\0world!" is desugared to GHC.CString.unpackCStringUtf8# "Hello\xC0\x80world!"#.
"café" is desugared to GHC.CString.unpackCStringUtf8# "caf\xC3\xA9"#.
"\x732B\x1F431" is desugared to GHC.CString.unpackCStringUtf8# "\xE7\x8C\xAB\xF0\x9F\x90\xB1"#.
"\xDFFF\xD800" is desugared to GHC.CString.unpackCStringUtf8# "\xED\xBF\xBF\xED\xA0\x80"#.
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