This chapter takes us on a journey through time to explore the Parthenon as a monument of cultural and political significance, as a temple, and as an emblem of high classical art. The chapter contextualises the creation of the Parthenon in the Athenian golden age, it appraises its iconography, its unique symbolism and importance, and it studies its history from antiquity to the present. The chapter’s purpose is both to document the Parthenon’s significance for Greece and for world culture and to establish the background against which to assess its despoliation.
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NotesHurwit (1999) 133.
Herodotus, The Histories 8.53.
E.g. Hill (1912) 537; Hurwit (1999) 133-135. For a beautifully illustrated account of the construction of the Old Parthenon, see Korres (2001).
Herodotus, The Histories 8.55.
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 11.29.3. For a critical account of the authenticity of the oath of Plataea, see in general Cartledge (2013).
The other one was the battle of Mycale in Ionia, Herodotus, The Histories 9.100, 9.106.
Barringer (2014) 196.
See also Beard (2010) 37.
Finley (2008) 16-17.
Rhodes (2010) 18.
Hammond (1967).
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 1.96-1.97, 6.76, 6.82. On the Delian league, see further Hammond (1967); Rhodes (1992); Rhodes (2010) Chap. 2.
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 1.96.
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 1.97-1.99; cf Kallet (2013).
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 1.96; Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Aristides 25.2.
Rhodes (1992) 38, 41.
Connelly (2014) Chap. 3 (unnumbered page).
Blamire (2001) 106; Jenkins (2002) 13; Kallet (2005) 37, 49, 56-57; Barringer (2014) 226; cf Jones (1957) 3-20.
Neils (2001) 24.
Neils (2001) 24.
Neils (2001) 24. Sparta was not part of the Delian league but headed instead the Peloponnesian league, centred on the Peloponnesus.
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 12.4; Herodotus, The Histories 7.151.1. For a discussion, see Badian (1987).
Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 12.4; Herodotus, The Histories 7.151.1; Badian (1987) 2.
Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Pericles 17.1.
Neils (2001) 24.
Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Pericles 13.6; Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 12.39.1; Strabo, Geography 9.1.12. For a critical assessment of Pericles’ role in the building programme on the Acropolis, see Neils (2001) 25-26.
Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Pericles 13.4; Strabo, Geography 9.1.12. A third architect, Carpion, is mentioned in Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture 7.preface.
Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Pericles 13.4, 13.9.
Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Pericles 12 and 14; Diodorus Siculus, Library of History 12.38.2, 12.40.2. For a modern account, see Kallet (2005) 56-57; Giovannini (2008); cf text to n 22.
Barringer (2014) 228, 232; Fullerton (2016) Chap. 7; Wycherley (1978) 110-111, 115; Stevens (1940) 1. See further Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture 3.
Barringer (2014) 228; Neils (2001) 36-39; Fullerton (2016) Chap. 7; Hurwit (2005) 135; Wycherley (1978) 106, 110; Browning (2008) 6; St Clair (2022) 172.
Vitruvius, The Ten Books on Architecture 3.3.13; Penrose (1888) Chap. 5; Wycherley (1978) 110; Fullerton (2016) Chap. 7; Etlin (2005) 367.
Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.24.5. See also Barringer (2014) 230.
Herodotus, The Histories 8.55; Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Themistocles 19; Apollodorus, Library 3.14.1; Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.24.5; Ovid, Metamorphoses 6.70.
Herodotus, The Histories 8.55.
Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.24.5.
Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.24.5.
Barringer (2014) 231; St Clair (2022) 178; cf Wycherley (1978) 121. See also text to n 123.
Barringer (2014) 232.
Barringer (2014) 232.
Barringer (2014) 232.
St Clair (1998) 51; cf Neils (2001) 33; Barringer (2014) 233.
Boardman (1999) 305.
Stamatopoulou (2012) 72; Barringer (2014) 233; Neils (1996) 193. See further text to nn 71 and 79.
The sources reveal some uncertainty as to the name and/or the identity of the Amazon, e.g. see Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Theseus 27.
Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Theseus 26-28; Herodotus, The Histories 9.27.
Wycherley (1978) 115; St Clair (1998) 51; Barringer (2014) 240.
St Clair (1998) 51.
Stevens (1936) 61-62; Neils (2001) 88-93; Barringer (2014) 235; Connelly (2014) Chap. 5 (unnumbered page). St Clair (1998) 51. See also Chap. 6, text to n 31.
Boardman (1999) 305.
Barringer (2014) 235.
Neils (2001) 132-137; Barringer (2014) 235-237; Jenkins (2005).
Neils (2001) 138-141.
Wycherley (1978) 118; Neils (1999) 6; Neils (2001) 161-166; Beard (2010) 129.
St Clair (1998) 52; see also the description of Block V from the east frieze on the British Museum website https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/G_1816-0610-19; cf Neils (1996) 189. Generally, on snakes in Athena’s aegis, see Marx (1993) 240; Deacy and Villing (2009) 111-112.
Beard (2010) 132. The interpretation of the frieze is further complicated by the uncertainty surrounding the possible existence of a second frieze, in the pronaos of the Parthenon, running at the same level as the ‘first’ frieze, below the ceiling and above the entry of the cella. Opinions about this second frieze are divided. According to Manolis Korres, a second Ionic frieze was planned in the pronaos of the Parthenon but we do not know if it was ever completed, and it was destroyed in antiquity, Korres (1994) 94-95, n 28; Mary Beard, possibly relying on Korres, discusses this second frieze in the following terms: ‘we now know that there was not just one, but two, friezes on the fifth-century Parthenon, a second whose existence no archaeologist had ever before suspected… It was much shorter and only faint traces survive… Whatever this frieze depicted, it would have been clearly visible, beyond the outer frieze, to any visitor climbing the steps to the main entrance of the building; it is almost bound to have been seen as the continuation of the narrative which ended (or so, up till now, we have believed) at the scene with the peplos’, Beard (2010) 136-137. See also Holtzmann (2003) 119, fig 98.
Stuart and Revett (1787) 12; Wycherley (1978) 117; Neils (2001) 173; Jenkins (2002) 25; Barringer (2014) 237; Shear (2021) 344.
Shear (2021) 35, 314.
Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 60.1; Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Pericles 13.3; Harris (1995) 8; Neils (2001) 21; Jenkins (2002) 24.
Neils (2001) 21; Hamilton (1996). See also Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 60.1.
Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 60.1; Harris (1995) 8; Neils (1996) 185; Neils (2001) 21; Jenkins (2002) 24.
Nagy (1992) 64; Harris (1995) 8-9; Neils (1996) 185; Neils (2001) 23, 173; Jenkins (2002) 11; Barringer (2014) 237; Shear (2021) 344. See further Plato, Euthyphro 6b; Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 49.3 and 60.1.
E.g. Holloway (1966) 223; Rotroff (1977); Connelly (1996) 54; Neils (2001) 174; Jenkins (2002) 25; Barringer (2014) 237.
Neils (2001) 174-175; Ridgway (1999) Chap. 5; Beard (2010) 136; Wachsmann (2012) 238.
St Clair (2022) 219-220.
St Clair (2022) 221.
St Clair (2022) 235.
St Clair (2022) 211.
St Clair (2022) 222.
Wycherley (1978) 117-118.
Martin Robertson (1975) 11; Wycherley (1978) 118; Jenkins (2002) 25.
St Clair (2022) 183, originally used in a different context.
Wycherley (1978) 118.
Wycherley (1978) 118.
Wycherley (1978) 118.
Neils (1996) 194.
Boardman (1977) 41, originally used in a different context.
Neils (2001) Chap. 6; Wycherley (1978) 117-118; Shear (2021) 344; Browning (2008) 6; cf Boardman (1984) 215.
Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Pericles 13.9.
Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.24.5, 1.24.7.
Wycherley (1978) 124; Barringer (2014) 238; Beard (2010) 28; Jenkins (2002) 10-12. See also Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Pericles 13.9; Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.24.7.
Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Pericles 13.9; Pausanias, Description of Greece 1.24.5-1.24.7.
Beard (2010) 151; Browning (2008) 7. Contrast Wycherley (1978) 123, who writes that the cult statue was taken to Constantinople and lost. See further Jenkins (2002) 16, according to whom the statue or a later replacement was thought to have been taken to Constantinople where it was destroyed in a fire.
Plutarch, Parallel Lives: Sulla 12-14; Appian, Mithridatic Wars 5.30.
St Clair (1998) 59.
Wallace-Hadrill (2008) 83.
Spawforth and Walker (1985) 92; Browning (2008) 7; Clark (2021) Chap. 8.
Thompson (1959).
St Clair (1998) 59.
Thompson (1959) 66; Frantz (1965) 190. See also Zosimus, New History 4.18 and 5.5; cf Clark (2021) Chap. 9.
Thompson (1959) 67, n 39.
Beard (2010) 52; Barringer (2014) 231. On the uncertainty of the dating, see Frantz (1965) 201.
Beard (2010) 52.
Beard (2010) 52.
Beard (2010) 52.
Beard (2010) 52.
Beard (2010) 55; Barringer (2014) 231; cf Wycherley (1978) 121.
Beard (2010) 55. In fact, it is also possible that some defacement took place under the Ottomans, since we lack detailed drawings from before the Ottoman occupation to document this history, see Beard (2010) 65-66, 74-75.
Beard (2010) 63-64.
Browning (2008) 9.
Beard (2010) 77.
Frantz (1965) 201-202.
Beard (2010) 69-70.
St Clair (1998) 60.
St Clair (1998) 60.
Beard (2010) 77.
Beard (2010) 77.
Beard (2010) 77.
Clark (2021) Chap. 12.
Beard (2010) 80.
National Museum of Denmark https://samlinger.natmus.dk/as/asset/39613 and https://samlinger.natmus.dk/as/asset/39607 (in Danish). See also St Clair (1998) 61; Clark (2021) Chap. 12.
St Clair (1998) 61.
Beard (2010) 83.
Beard (2010) 83.
St Clair (1998) 46.
St Clair (1998) 46.
Dodwell (1819) 324; St Clair (1998) 47, 61; Beard (2010) 85.
St Clair (1998) 62.
St Clair (1998) 61.
Dodwell (1819) 324-325; St Clair (1998) 47; cf Connelly (2014) Chap. 3 (unnumbered page), discussing architectural fragments from the Old Temple of Athena that had been built into the north wall of the Acropolis already in antiquity.
E.g. see Brilliant and Kinney (2011); Frey (2015); Brenk (1987) 103.
Frey (2015) 1; Kinney (2011); Kinney (2001) 138; Kinney (1997); Brenk (1987) 103; Esch (2011).
Walters (2016); Hopkins and Beard (2006) 160-161; Gergely (2005) 47.
Hopkins and Beard (2006) 161.
Meier (2011).
See Chap. 6, text to nn 187ff.
St Clair (1998) 62.
This is discussed in Sect. 10.2.
Jenkins (1990) 97-98; St Clair (1998) 63; House of Commons (2000), annex IV, para 1.3.
Beard (2010) 87.
For an account of what likely occurred, see Beard (2010) 87. See also Ben Macintyre, ‘Piecing Together the Essex Marbles Puzzle’, The Times (13 July 2019).
St Clair (1998) 63.
See Chap. 4, text to n 82.
See Sect. 6.3.1.2.
See London Protocol (22 January 1829/3 February 1830).
Beard (2010) 96-99.
Act of 10/22 May 1834 on scientific and technological collections, on the discovery and conservation of antiquities and the use thereof, OJ 22 of 16/28 June 1834, art 61.
Hamilakis (2007) 36.
Beard (2010) 101.
Beard (2010) 101-102.
Beard (2010) 102; Browning (2008) 13; St Clair (1998) 322. For depictions of some of these buildings that no longer exist, see Fowden (2022) 169-174.
Beard (2010) 102.
See YSMA, ‘History of Older Interventions’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/restoration/history-of-older-interventions/.
YSMA, ‘History of Older Interventions’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/restoration/history-of-older-interventions/.
YSMA, ‘History of Older Interventions’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/restoration/history-of-older-interventions/.
St Clair (1998) 328.
St Clair (1998) 328; Beard (2010) 113; YSMA, ‘History of Older Interventions’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/restoration/history-of-older-interventions/.
Stevens (1936) 79; St Clair (1998) 329; Hurwit (1999) 299; Browning (2008) 13.
Browning (2008) 13.
Beard (2010) 113; St Clair (1998) 329-330; YSMA, ‘History of Older Interventions’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/restoration/history-of-older-interventions/.
Both are also known by the transliteration of their Greek acronyms, ESMA and YSMA respectively, and are part of the Greek Ministry of Culture and Sports, see https://www.ysma.gr/en/.
Beard (2010) 114. See also ESMA https://www.ysma.gr/en/the-service/organizational-structure/esma/.
E.g. in 1979, the caryatids were moved to the old Acropolis Museum; in 1989, the east metopes of the Parthenon were transferred to the museum; and in 1992-1993, the west frieze of the Parthenon was removed from the site to the museum, see YSMA, ‘Timeline of Interventions’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/the-service/timeline-of-interventions/; cf Beard (2010) 114; St Clair (1998) 330.
E.g. see YSMA, ‘The Acropolis Restoration News’ (16 September 2016) https://workfun.openabekt.gr/files/items/7696322/P91.30.pdf.
See YSMA, ‘Parthenon: Completed Interventions’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/monuments/parthenon/completed-interventions/.
St Clair (1998) 330; Beard (2010) 114; YSMA, ‘Methodology’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/restoration/methodology/.
Beard (2010) 114; St Clair (1998) 330; YSMA, ‘Methodology’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/restoration/methodology/.
YSMA, ‘Parthenon: Ongoing Interventions’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/monuments/parthenon/ongoing-interventions/; Ioannidou (2012) 12; Beard (2010) 114; St Clair (1998) 330.
St Clair (1998) 330; YSMA, ‘Restoration’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/the-service/fields-work/restoration/.
YSMA, ‘Methodology’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/restoration/methodology/.
Bouras (2012) 3; YSMA, ‘Principles of Interventions’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/restoration/principles-of-interventions/.
St Clair (1998) 330; Browning (2008) 14; YSMA, ‘Principles of Interventions’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/restoration/principles-of-interventions/.
Detailed information on the completed and ongoing restoration work on the Parthenon is available on the website of the Acropolis Restoration Service, see https://www.ysma.gr/en/.
See Chap. 6, text to nn 214-216.
See also YSMA, ‘Timeline of Interventions’ https://www.ysma.gr/en/the-service/timeline-of-interventions/.
Nick Squires, ‘Concrete Pathways Built around the Parthenon Condemned as an Eyesore by Critics in Greece’, The Telegraph (2 June 2021).
Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 2.36-2.41.
But cf text to nn 17-22.
E.g. Beard (2010) 39-40; Neil MacGregor, ‘The Whole World in Our Hands’, The Guardian (24 July 2004). It is somewhat ironic that MacGregor should indirectly try to discredit the claim for the marbles’ return with the argument that Athens was ‘an imperial maritime power’, given that the Parthenon marbles in the British Museum today are a result of British imperialism. For a similar reaction, see O’Neill (2004) 192-193.
Browning (2008) 2-3. For a discussion of Athenian democracy, see Jones (1957); Kallet (2005) 45-51.
Browning (2008) 2-3.
See further Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War 1.10.2, famously predicting how Athens and Sparta would be remembered by future generations.
Neils (2001) 203.
Neils (2001) 203.
Beard (2010) 7.
Beard (2010) 7.
St Clair (1998) 273-274.
Kelly (2016) 509. The fact that the design of the British Museum drew on the Parthenon was also evoked by the ever-faithful Hamilton in a letter to Elgin, see St Clair (1998) 274.
St Clair (1998) 273.
St Clair (1998) 271.
NGV, ‘Temple of Boom Unveiled at NGV International’ (Media release, 22 November 2022); Nathan Dunne, ‘From Athens with Love: The NGV’s Dizzying Recreation of the Parthenon’, The Guardian (21 November 2022).
UNESCO, ‘Acropolis, Athens’ https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/404/.
See Acropolis Museum, ‘The Museum Building’ https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/museum-building.
Acropolis Museum, ‘The Museum Building’ https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/museum-building.
See Acropolis Museum, ‘The Parthenon Gallery’ https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/exhibit-halls/parthenon-gallery.
See Acropolis Museum, ‘The Parthenon Gallery’ https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/exhibit-halls/parthenon-gallery. See also http://www.tschumi.com/projects/2/#.
Acropolis Museum, ‘The Parthenon Gallery’ https://www.theacropolismuseum.gr/en/exhibit-halls/parthenon-gallery.
Peter Aspden, ‘A Manifesto for the Parthenon Marbles’, Financial Times (29 November 2008).
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Catharine Titi
© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter Cite this chapterTiti, C. (2023). The Parthenon. In: The Parthenon Marbles and International Law. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26357-6_2
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Published: 25 May 2023
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