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Training and development - Wikipedia

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Improving the effectiveness of organizations and the individuals and teams within them

Training and development involves improving the effectiveness of organizations and the individuals and teams within them.[1] Training may be viewed as being related to immediate changes in effectiveness via organized instruction, while development is related to the progress of longer-term organizational and employee goals. While training and development technically have differing definitions, the terms are often used interchangeably. Training and development have historically been topics within adult education and applied psychology, but have within the last two decades become closely associated with human resources management, talent management, human resources development, instructional design, human factors, and knowledge management.[1]

Skills training has taken on varying organizational forms across industrialized economies.[2] Germany has an elaborate vocational training system, whereas the United States and the United Kingdom are considered to generally have weak ones.[2]

Aspects of training and development have been linked to ancient civilizations around the world.[3] Early training-related articles appeared in journals marketed to enslavers in the Antebellum South[4] and training approaches and philosophies were discussed extensively by Booker T. Washington.[5] Early academic publishing related to training included a 1918 article in the Journal of Applied Psychology, which explored an undergraduate curriculum designed for applied psychologists.[6]

By the 1960s and 70s, the field began developing theories and conducting theory-based research since it was historically rooted in trial-and-error intervention research,[6] and new training methods were developed, such as the use of computers, television, case studies, and role playing.[6][7] The scope of training and development also expanded to include cross-cultural training, a focus on the development of the individual employee, and the use of new organization development literature to frame training programs.[7]

The 1980s focused on how employees received and implemented training programs, and encouraged the collection of data for evaluation purposes, particularly management training programs.[8] The development piece of training and development became increasingly popular in the 90s, with employees more frequently being influenced by the concept of lifelong learning.[9] It was in this decade that research revealing the impact and importance of fostering a training and development-positive culture was first conducted.[9]

The 21st century brought more research in topics such as team-training, such as cross-training, which emphasizes training in coworkers' responsibilities.[10]

Training practice and methods[edit]

Training and development encompass three main activities: training, education, and development.[11][12][13] Differing levels and types of development may be used depending on the roles of employees in an organisation.[14]

The "stakeholders" in training and development are categorized into several classes. The sponsors of training and development are senior managers, and line managers are responsible for coaching, resources, and performance. The clients of training and development are business planners, while the participants are those who undergo the processes. The facilitators are human resource management staff and the providers are specialists in the field. Each of these groups has its own agenda and motivations, which sometimes conflict with the others'.[15]

Since the 2000s, training has become more trainee-focused, which allows those being trained more flexibility and active learning opportunities.[16] These active learning techniques include exploratory/discovery learning,[17] error management training,[18] guided exploration,[19] and mastery training.[16] Typical projects in the field include executive and supervisory/management development, new employee orientation, professional skills training, technical/job training, customer-service training, sales-and-marketing training, and health-and-safety training. Training is particularly critical in high-reliability organizations, which rely on high safety standards to prevent catastrophic damage to employees, equipment, or the environment (e.g. nuclear power plants and operating rooms).[20]

The instructional systems design approach (often referred to as the ADDIE model) is often used for designing learning programs and used for instructional design, or the process of designing, developing, and delivering learning content. There are 5 phases in the ADDIE model:[21]

  1. Needs assessment: problem identification. training needs analysis, determination of audience determined, identification of stakeholder's needs and required resources
  2. Program design: mapping of learning intervention/implementation outline and evaluation methods
  3. Program development: delivery method, production of learning outcomes, quality evaluation of learning outcome, development of communication strategy, required technology, and assessment and evaluation tools
  4. Training delivery and implementation: participation in side-programs, training delivery, learning participation, and evaluation of business
  5. Evaluation of training: formal evaluation, including the evaluation of learning and potential points of improvement

Many different training methods exist today, including both on- and off-the-job methods.[citation needed] Other training methods may include:

There is significant importance in training as it prepares employees for higher job responsibilities, shows employees they are valued, improves IT and computer processes, and tests the efficiency of new performance management systems. However, some[who?] believe training wastes time and money because, in certain cases, real life experience may be better than education, and organizations want to spend less, not more.[26]

Seminar training method

Needs assessments, especially when the training is being conducted on a large-scale, are frequently conducted in order to gauge what needs to be trained, how it should be trained, and how extensively.[27] Needs assessments in the training and development context often reveal employee and management-specific skills to develop (e.g. for new employees), organizational-wide problems to address (e.g. performance issues), adaptations needed to suit changing environments (e.g. new technology), or employee development needs (e.g. career planning). The needs assessment can predict the degree of effectiveness of training and development programs and how closely the needs were met, the execution of the training (i.e. how effective the trainer was), and trainee characteristics (e.g. motivation, cognitive abilities).[28] Training effectiveness is typically done on an individual or team-level, with few studies investigating the impacts on organizations.[1]

Aik and Tway (2006) estimated that only 20–30% of training given to employees are used within the next month.[29] To mitigate the issue, they recommended some general principles to follow to increase the employees' desire to take part in the program. These include:

Motivation is an internal process that influences an employee's behavior and willingness to achieve organizational goals.[30] Creating a motivational environment within an organization can help employees achieve their highest level of productivity,[29] and can create an engaged workforce that enhances individual and organizational performance.[31] The model for motivation is represented by motivators separated into two different categories:

Training and development conference

Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivators associate with employee performance in the workplace. A company's techniques to motivate employees may change over time depending on the current dynamics of the workplace.[31]

Traditional constructive feedback, also known as weakness-based feedback, can often be viewed as malicious from the employees' perspective. When interpreted negatively, employees lose motivation on the job, affecting their production level.[32]

Reinforcement is another principle of employee training and development. Studies have shown that reinforcement directly influences employee learning, which is highly correlated with performance after training. Reinforcement-based training emphasizes the importance of communication between managers and trainees in the workplace. The more the training environment can be a positive, nurturing experience, the faster attendees are apt to learn.[33]

The benefits of the training and development of employees include:

However, training and development may lead to adverse outcomes if it is not strategic and goal-oriented.[38] Additionally, there is a lack of consensus on the long-term outcomes of training investments;[39] and in the public sector, managers often hold conservative views about the effectiveness of training.[37]

Barriers and access to training[edit]

Training and development are crucial to organizational performance, employee career advancement and engagement.[40]

Disparities in training can be caused by several factors, including societal norms and cultural biases that significantly impact the distribution of training opportunities. Stereotypes and implicit biases can undermine the confidence and performance of minority groups to seek out training, affecting their career development.[41]

The impact of excluding or limiting a person's access to training and development opportunities can affect both the individual and the organization.

Management teams that are not diverse can be self-replicating as senior leaders' demographic characteristics significantly impact the types of programs, policies and practices implemented in the organisation – i.e. there are more likely to be diversity programs if the management team is also diverse.[44]

To address these disparities, organizations can implement diversity policies, provide bias training, and establish mentorship programs to support underrepresented groups. These may include:

The current political climate in the United States has intensified debates around Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) programs, leading to both challenges and shifts in corporate strategies. Increased political polarization, new state-level legislation, and public scrutiny have caused some companies to scale back or reframe DEI initiatives to avoid legal risks or reputational backlash. At the same time, many organizations remain committed to fostering inclusive workplaces, but are increasingly positioning DEI efforts under broader umbrellas like "talent development," "belonging," or "workplace culture" to navigate the evolving landscape. Overall, the environment has made DEI efforts more complex, requiring companies to be both strategic and resilient in advancing inclusive practices.

Occupation

The Occupational Information Network cites training and development specialists as having a bright outlook, meaning that the occupation will grow rapidly or have several job openings in the next few years. Related professions include training and development managers, (chief) learning officers, industrial-organizational psychologists, and organization development consultants. Training and development specialists are equipped with the tools to conduct needs analyses, build training programs to suit the organization's needs by using various training techniques, create training materials, and execute and guide training programs.[49]

  1. ^ a b c d e Aguinis, Herman; Kraiger, Kurt (January 2009). "Benefits of Training and Development for Individuals and Teams, Organizations, and Society". Annual Review of Psychology. 60 (1): 451–474. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163505. ISSN 0066-4308. PMID 18976113. S2CID 45609735.
  2. ^ a b Thelen, Kathleen (2004). How Institutions Evolve: The Political Economy of Skills in Germany, Britain, the United States, and Japan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54674-4.
  3. ^ Alagaraja, Meera; Dooley, Larry M. (March 2003). "Origins and Historical Influences on Human Resource Development: A Global Perspective". Human Resource Development Review. 2 (1): 82–96. doi:10.1177/1534484303251170. ISSN 1534-4843. S2CID 143353567.
  4. ^ Phillips, Lisa (8 March 2013). "David R. Roediger and Esch Elizabeth. The Production of Difference. Race and the Management of Labor in US History. Oxford University Press, Oxford [etc.]2012. x, 286 pp. Ill. £22.50". International Review of Social History. 58 (1): 129–131. doi:10.1017/s0020859013000059. ISSN 0020-8590. S2CID 144977591.
  5. ^ Washington, Booker, T. Up From Slavery.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ a b c Bell, Bradford S.; Tannenbaum, Scott I.; Ford, J. Kevin; Noe, Raymond A.; Kraiger, Kurt (2017). "100 years of training and development research: What we know and where we should go". Journal of Applied Psychology. 102 (3): 305–323. doi:10.1037/apl0000142. hdl:1813/74878. ISSN 1939-1854. PMID 28125262. S2CID 26505012.
  7. ^ a b Campbell, J P (January 1971). "Personnel Training and Development". Annual Review of Psychology. 22 (1): 565–602. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.22.020171.003025. ISSN 0066-4308.
  8. ^ Burke, Michael J.; Day, Russell R. (1986). "A cumulative study of the effectiveness of managerial training". Journal of Applied Psychology. 71 (2): 232–245. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.71.2.232. ISSN 0021-9010.
  9. ^ a b Birdi, Kamal; Allan, Catriona; Warr, Peter (1997). "Correlates and perceived outcomes of 4 types of employee development activity". Journal of Applied Psychology. 82 (6): 845–857. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.82.6.845. ISSN 0021-9010. PMID 9638086.
  10. ^ Marks, Michelle A.; Sabella, Mark J.; Burke, C. Shawn; Zaccaro, Stephen J. (2002). "The impact of cross-training on team effectiveness". Journal of Applied Psychology. 87 (1): 3–13. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.1.3. ISSN 0021-9010. PMID 11916213.
  11. ^ Rosemary Harrison (2005). Learning and Development. CIPD Publishing. p. 5. ISBN 9781843980506.
  12. ^ Patrick J. Montana & Bruce H. Charnov (2000). "Training and Development". Management. Barron Educationally Series. p. 225. ISBN 9780764112768.
  13. ^ Thomas N. Garavan; Pat Costine & Noreen Heraty (1995). "Training and Development: Concepts, Attitudes, and Issues". Training and Development in Ireland. Cengage Learning EMEA. p. 1. ISBN 9781872853925.
  14. ^ Peacock, Melanie; Steward, Eileen B.; Belcourt, Monica (2020). Understanding Human Resources Management. Alexis Hood. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-17-679806-2.
  15. ^ Derek Torrington; Laura Hall & Stephen Taylor (2004). Human Resource Management. Pearson Education. p. 363. ISBN 9780273687139.
  16. ^ a b Bell, Bradford S.; Kozlowski, Steve W. J. (2008). "Active learning: Effects of core training design elements on self-regulatory processes, learning, and adaptability". Journal of Applied Psychology. 93 (2): 296–316. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.93.2.296. hdl:1813/75102. ISSN 1939-1854. PMID 18361633.
  17. ^ McDaniel, Mark A.; Schlager, Mark S. (June 1990). "Discovery Learning and Transfer of Problem-Solving Skills". Cognition and Instruction. 7 (2): 129–159. doi:10.1207/s1532690xci0702_3. ISSN 0737-0008.
  18. ^ Keith, Nina; Frese, Michael (2005). "Self-Regulation in Error Management Training: Emotion Control and Metacognition as Mediators of Performance Effects". Journal of Applied Psychology. 90 (4): 677–691. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.4.677. ISSN 1939-1854. PMID 16060786.
  19. ^ Wood, Robert; Kakebeeke, Bastiaan; Debowski, Shelda; Frese, Michael (April 2000). "The Impact of Enactive Exploration on Intrinsic Motivation, Strategy, and Performance in Electronic Search". Applied Psychology. 49 (2): 263–283. doi:10.1111/1464-0597.00014. ISSN 0269-994X.
  20. ^ Roberts, Karlene H. (July 1990). "Managing High Reliability Organizations". California Management Review. 32 (4): 101–113. doi:10.2307/41166631. ISSN 0008-1256. JSTOR 41166631. S2CID 154274951.
  21. ^ "The ADDIE Model for Instructional Design Explained". AIHR Digital. 2 November 2020. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
  22. ^ Peacock, Melanie; Steward, Eileen B.; Belcourt, Monica (2020). Understanding Human Resources Management. Alexis Hood. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-17-679806-2.
  23. ^ a b Peacock, Melanie; Steward, Eileen B.; Belcourt, Monica (2020). Understanding Human Resources Management. Alexis Hood. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-17-679806-2.
  24. ^ a b c Peacock, Melanie; Steward, Eileen B.; Belcourt, Monica (2020). Understanding Human Resources Management. Alexis Hood. p. 191. ISBN 978-0-17-679806-2.
  25. ^ Peacock, Melanie; Steward, Eileen B.; Belcourt, Monica (2020). Understanding Human Resources Management. Alexis Hood. p. 192. ISBN 978-0-17-679806-2.
  26. ^ Say, My. "Why Your Employee Training Is A Waste of Time And Money -- And What To Do About It". Forbes. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
  27. ^ Brown, Judith (December 2002). "Training Needs Assessment: A Must for Developing an Effective Training Program". Public Personnel Management. 31 (4): 569–578. doi:10.1177/009102600203100412. ISSN 0091-0260. S2CID 154852480.
  28. ^ Tannenbaum, S I; Yukl, G (January 1992). "Training and Development in Work Organizations". Annual Review of Psychology. 43 (1): 399–441. doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.43.020192.002151.
  29. ^ a b c d e f Aik, Chong Tek; Tway, Duane C. (March 2006). "Elements and principles of training as a performance improvement solution". Performance Improvement. 45 (3): 28–32. doi:10.1002/pfi.2006.4930450307. ISSN 1090-8811.
  30. ^ Stack, Laura (2013). Managing employee performance : motivation, ability, and obstacles. [Highlands Ranch, CO]: Productivity Pro. ISBN 978-1-62723-025-4. OCLC 852507794.
  31. ^ a b c d MacRae, Ian (Psychologist) (3 February 2017). Motivation and performance : a guide to motivating a diverse workforce. Furnham, Adrian. London. ISBN 978-0-7494-7814-8. OCLC 966315014.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  32. ^ Aguinis, Herman; Gottfredson, Ryan K.; Joo, Harry (1 March 2012). "Delivering effective performance feedback: The strengths-based approach". Business Horizons. 55 (2): 105–111. doi:10.1016/j.bushor.2011.10.004. ISSN 0007-6813. S2CID 154034097.
  33. ^ Nelson, Bob. "A Dose of Positive Reinforcement Can Go a Long Way". T+D, vol. 67, no. 3, Mar. 2013, pp. 40–44. EBSCOhost, library.macewan.ca/full-record/bth/85852296.
  34. ^ Kozlowski, Steve W. J.; Bell, Bradford S. (15 April 2003), "Work Groups and Teams in Organizations", Handbook of Psychology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei1214, hdl:1813/75229, ISBN 0471264385, S2CID 28847722
  35. ^ a b Salas, Eduardo; Frush, Karen (24 August 2012). Improving patient safety through teamwork and team training. Salas, Eduardo, Frush, Karen. New York. ISBN 9780199875542. OCLC 811142213.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  36. ^ "The Importance of Training Employees: 11 Benefits". Indeed Career Guide. Retrieved 29 November 2020.
  37. ^ a b Chen, Chung-An; Hsieh, Chih-Wei; Chen, Don-Yun (March 2021). "Can Training Enhance Public Employees' Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design". Review of Public Personnel Administration. 41 (1): 194–215. doi:10.1177/0734371X19872244. hdl:10356/149992. ISSN 0734-371X.
  38. ^ Rebecca, Page-Tickell (3 July 2014). Learning and development (1st ed.). London. ISBN 9780749469894. OCLC 883248797.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  39. ^ Quratulain, Samina; Khan, Abdul Karim; Sabharwal, Meghna; Javed, Basharat (June 2021). "Effect of Self-Efficacy and Instrumentality Beliefs on Training Implementation Behaviors: Testing the Moderating Effect of Organizational Climate". Review of Public Personnel Administration. 41 (2): 250–273. doi:10.1177/0734371X19876676. ISSN 0734-371X.
  40. ^ a b Hassett, MP (2022). "The Effect of Access to Training and Development Opportunities, on Rate of Work Engagement Within the U.S. Federal Workforce". Public Personal Management. 51 (3): 380–404. doi:10.1177/00910260221098189.
  41. ^ a b Lee, HH (2021). "Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination". Review of Public and Personnel Administration. 41 (2): 274–293. doi:10.1177/0734371X19880578.
  42. ^ Eddy, S; Ng, AG (2017). "The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management". Human Resource Management Journal. 27: 133–151. doi:10.1111/1748-8583.12135.
  43. ^ Chen, CA (2021). "Can Training Enhance Public Employees' Public Service Motivation? A Pretest–Posttest Design". American Society for Public Administration. 41: 194–215. doi:10.1177/0734371X19872244. hdl:10356/149992.
  44. ^ Eddy, S; Ng, AG (2017). "The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management". Human Resource Management Journal. 27: 133–151. doi:10.1111/1748-8583.12135.
  45. ^ Eddy, S; Ng, AG (2017). "The glass ceiling in context: the influence of CEO gender, recruitment practices and firm internationalisation on the representation of women in management". Human Resource Management Journal. 27: 133–151. doi:10.1111/1748-8583.12135.
  46. ^ Lee, HH (2021). "Woman and Public Organisation: An Examination of Mentorship and Its Effect on Reporting Workplace Discrimination". Review of Public and Personnel AdministrationReview of Public and Personnel Administration. 41 (2): 274–293. doi:10.1177/0734371X19880578.
  47. ^ "New Zealand Public Service Act 2020". Legislation New Zealand. Retrieved 17 September 2024.
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  49. ^ "13-1151.00 – Training and Development Specialists". onetonline.org. Retrieved 1 March 2019.

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